A people who inhabited Central and South America shortly before the Spanish conquest of Mexican lands in 1521. The history of the Aztecs is the history of multiple associations of tribal groups that had their own city-states and royal dynasties. “Aztec” also refers to the powerful alliance of the majestic city-states of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan, cities that established their dominance in what is now Mexico between 1400 and 1521.

Aztec civilization, Indian cities and their life.

City-states and settlements Aztec civilization were built on the vast mountain plateaus of the Mexican valley, on which the capital of Mexico is located today. These are fertile lands with a total area of 6.5 thousand square meters. km, - lands extending approximately 50 km in length and width. “Valley of Mexico” lies at an altitude of 2500 meters above sea level and is surrounded on all sides by volcanic mountains 5 thousand meters high.

The Aztec civilization came to these lands because of Lake Texcoco, which could supply thousands of people fresh water and food. The lake was fed by streams and mountain runoff, periodically overflowing its edges and overflowing hundreds of meters. However, the lake supplied local residents with drinking water and created a habitat for fish, mammals and birds. The Triple Alliance of city-states controlled vast territories from the borders of Guatemala to what is now northern Mexico. The coastal plains of the Gulf of Mexico, the mountain gorges of Oaxaca and Guerrero, the tropical forests of Yucatan - all this belonged to the Aztec civilization. Thus, the Indians had at their disposal all kinds of Natural resources, which were not observed in their original locations.

The languages of the Nahuatl group were dominant in the Aztec civilization. Nahuatl dialects were adopted as a second language and played the role of intermediary language in almost all territories of South America during the period of Spanish colonization. The linguistic heritage of the Aztecs is found in multiple toponyms - Acapulco, Oaxaca. Historians estimate that about 1.5 million people still use the Nahuatl language or its variants in daily communication. The Aztec civilization spoke exclusively Nahuatl languages. The languages of this group have spread from Central America to Canada and include about 30 related dialects. The Aztec civilization, the Indians of this empire, were great experts and lovers of literature. They collected entire libraries of pictographic books with various descriptions of religious rites and ceremonies, historical events, tribute collections, and simple registers. The Aztecs used bark as paper. Unfortunately, most of the books belonging to the ancient Aztecs were destroyed by the Spanish during the conquest. Nowadays, scientists studying the ancient Aztec people have to work with grains of surviving written information. The first information about the Aztec Indians was received, not surprisingly, during the conquest.

Five letters, reports, to the king from Cortes contained primary information about the Indians of America. 40 years later, a soldier, a participant in one of the Spaniards’ expeditions, Bernal Diaz Castillo, compiled true story the Spanish conquest, where the Tenochki and their brotherly peoples were described in detail. The first information sheets about aspects of Aztec lifeand cultures were compiled in the late 16th and early 17th centuries - all kinds of ethnographic descriptions created by the Aztecnobles and Spanish monks. The most valuable example of such writing that has survived to this day is the multi-volume manuscript “General History of New Spain.”

Aztec culture by means of language was connected with the cultural complex of the Nahua peoples. According to myths and Indian legends, the tribes that later formed the once majestic and powerful Aztec empire came to the Anahuac Valley from the northern lands. The location of the Anahuac Valley is known for sure - this is the territory of the modern capital of Mexico, but it is not known for certain where the Aztecs came to these lands from. Researchers constantly put forward their theories about the historical homeland of the Indians, however, they all turn out to be false. According to legends, the ancestors of the Aztecs came from the north, from a place called Aztlan. According to legend, the Indians were led to new lands by the god Huitzilopochtli - “god of the hummingbird”, “left-handed hummingbird”.

American Indians settled in the place indicated to them by the gods themselves - the well-known legend about the eagle sitting on a cactus, about the eagle from the prophecy about the new land of the Aztecs. Today, this legend - an eagle eating a snake - is depicted in the design of the Mexican flag. Thus, according to legend, the Aztecs, back in 1256, found themselves in the lands of the Valley of Mexico, surrounded by cliffs and washed by the waters of Lake Texcoco. Before the arrival of the Aztec tribe, the lands of Lake Texcoco were divided between the dominant city-states. The Aztecs, recognizing the power of the ruler of one of the cities, settled on his lands and built their city, their great capital - Tenochtitlan. According to historical data, the city was built in 1325 AD. Today, the former capital of the Aztecs is the historical center of Mexico City. According to beliefs, the local population received the Aztecs with hostility; they were considered uncivilized and uneducated, and most importantly, unimaginably cruel. However, the Indian tribes that came did not respond to aggression with aggression - they decided to learn; and they took all the knowledge they could from their neighbors.

The Aztecs absorbed the Vedas of the surrounding tribes and peoples close to them. The main source of development of the tribes was the knowledge and experience of the ancient Toltecs, and the Toltec tribes themselves as teachers. For the entire Aztec people, the Toltecs were the creators of culture. In the language of this people, the word “Toltecayotl” was synonymous with the word “culture”. Aztec mythology identifies the Toltecs and the cult of Quetzalcoatl with the city of Tollan (modern Tula in Mexico). Along with their knowledge, the Aztecs also absorbed the traditions of the Toltecs and peoples close to them. Among the traditions were the foundations of religion. Such borrowings primarily include the myth of the creation of the world, which describes four suns, four eras, each of which ended with the death of life and a universal catastrophe. In Aztec culture, the current fourth era, the fourth sun, escaped destruction thanks to the self-sacrifice of the supreme god - the god Nanahuatl, which means “all wounded.”

It is known that the Aztec capital was divided into 4 districts called meycaotl, each of which was headed by an elder. Each district - meykaotl, in turn, was divided into 5 smaller quarters - calpulli. The Calpulli of the Aztecs were originally patriarchal families, clans, and the regions uniting them - meykaotl - phratries. Before the arrival of the Spanish conquerors to the lands of the Aztecs, one community lived in one dwelling, house - a large patriarchal family of several generations - sencalli. The land owned by the tribe was divided into sectors, which were looked after by individual Aztec household communities - sencalli. In addition, at each more or less large village there were lands allocated for the needs of priests, rulers and military leaders, the harvest from which went to support the corresponding castes of society.

Aztec tribes and features of the development of the empire.

The lands of the American Indians were always cultivated jointly - a man and a woman. However, upon marriage, a man received rights to personal use of land. Land plots, like the community's land itself, were inalienable. The life of the Aztecs was built according to certain social canons, violations of which were strictly punished. At the head of each Aztec quarter, the calpulli, stood its own public council, which included only elected elders of the Aztec tribe. The leaders of the phratries and the elders involved in the public council were also part of the tribal council - the council of the Aztec leader, which included the main leader of the tribe. A similar social structure was observed in all tribes without exception.

Aztec tribe, The social system of the Indians was divided into castes of free people and slaves. Slaves could be not only prisoners of war, but also debtors who fell into slavery, as well as poor people who sold themselves and their families. Aztec slaves always wore collars. It is not known for certain in which sectors of agriculture and other Aztec households slave labor was involved; most likely, they were used in the construction of large-scale structures - palaces and temples of the Aztecs, as well as as servants, porters and artisans of low professions.

On the lands conquered by the ancient Indians, military leaders were given tributaries as trophies for their service, whose status was comparable to that of serfs. But not only slaves were artisans; large communities always had their own artisans from free people. Thus, in the Aztec empire, in addition to residual communal relations, there was a complete absence of rights to land, coupled with private property, i.e. rights to slaves, agricultural products and crafts. It is obvious that, along with private property and dominant relations - master and subordinate, in the Aztec tribes there were also remnants of the primitive communal system characteristic of Europe BC. Slaves, or “tlacotin” among the American Indians, constituted an important social caste, distinct from prisoners of war.

City of Tenochtitlan was a slave capital. The rules of behavior for slaves, and slave life itself, were very different from what could be observed in Europe of that era. Slavery among the Aztecs was more like slavery during classical antiquity. First of all, slavery was personal, not inherited; the children of a slave were free from birth. A slave in the Aztec tribe could own personal property and even personal slaves. Slaves had the right to redeem themselves, or to win their freedom through labor and service. Also, in cases where slaves were treated cruelly or slaves had children with their owners, they could protest their slavery and become free people.

The American Indians respected traditions. Thus, in most cases, upon the death of the owner, slaves were inherited as private property. However, slaves who particularly distinguished themselves by their service and labor to the previous owner were freed. Another feature and property of slavery among the Aztecs: if in the market a slave could, due to the carelessness of his owner, run out of the market wall and step on excrement, then he was given the right to appeal his slavery. In case of victory, the slave was washed, given clean clothes and released. Cases of such emancipation of slaves occurred quite regularly among the American Indians, since a person who prevented a slave from escaping and who helped the owner was declared a slave instead of a fugitive.

In addition, a slave could not be given away or sold without his consent, unless the authorities declared the slave disobedient. In general, increased controls were applied to unruly slaves, the wild Indians; they were forced to wear wooden shackles around their necks and hoops on their hands everywhere. Shackles served not only as a distinctive feature exposing the slave’s guilt, but also as a device that complicated the process of escape. Before such slaves were resold, the new owner was informed how many times he had tried to escape and how many times he had been resold before.

A slave who made 4 unsuccessful attempts to escape was, in most cases, given up for sacrificial rites. In some cases, free Aztecs could become slaves as punishment. A murderer sentenced to death could be given into slavery twice as much or as a widower of the murdered man. Slavery also punished unpaid debts, debts of sons, fathers and mothers. Parents had the right to sell their child into slavery only in cases where the authorities declared their offspring to be a disobedient, wild Indian. A similar fate awaited the disobedient students. And the last important distinguishing feature is that the Aztecs had the right to sell themselves into slavery.

In a number of cases, voluntary slaves who were captured Aztec civilization, were awarded a vacation in order to enjoy the price of their freedom, after which they were transferred to the possession of the owner. A similar fate awaited unsuccessful gamblers, old courtesans and prostitutes. It is also known that some captive slaves were treated as debtors and offenders, according to all the rules of slave ownership. IN South America During the dawn of the Aztec Empire, sacrifices were widespread and ubiquitous.

However, the Aztecs practiced them on a grand scale, sacrificing both slaves and freemen on each of their many calendar holidays. There are known cases described in Aztec chronicles when hundreds and thousands of people were sacrificed every day. So, during the construction of the main temple - the great pyramid of the Aztecs in 1487, about 80 thousand prisoners of war and slaves were sacrificed in four days. It is not entirely clear how a city with a population of 120 thousand inhabitants and several tribes of Indians accommodated such a number of prisoners and slaves, how they were able to catch them, much less execute them, taking into account the fact that Atzizotl personally sacrificed to the gods. However, the fact remains. It is also worth noting that the Aztec tribe did not always sacrifice people; Animals often played the role of alms to the gods. As is known, the Aztecs specially bred animals for such purposes, for example, llamas.

There were also donations of things: communities broke their most valuable property for the glory of the gods. In addition, individual gods and their cults required special alms: The Cult of Quetzalcoatl, along with human sacrifices, demanded the sacrifice of hummingbirds and butterflies. Self-sacrifice was also practiced in the Aztec tribes. During special rituals, people deliberately wounded themselves, performed ceremonial bloodletting, and wore shackles and clothes with spikes on the back. Blood occupied a dominant position in Aztec religion and ceremonies. Indeed, in local mythology, the gods shed their blood more than once to help humanity. So in the myth of the rebirth of the world - the myth of the fifth sun, the gods sacrificed themselves so that people could live.

Rituals, traditions and the religion itself of the ancient Aztecs prepared people for the highest sacrifice, for sacrifice human life. The ritual of sacrifice took place according to the canons: the victim’s skin was painted blue using chalk; the sacrifice was carried out on the supreme square of the temple or pyramid; the victim was laid down, and the process of sacrifice began. The heart, the first to be separated from the body, was always stored by the Aztecs in a special stone vessel. The victim's belly was ripped open with a stone knife - obsidian was not capable of opening the flesh, and the Indians did not discover iron for themselves.

At the end of the ritual, the victim was thrown down the stairs of the temple, where the priests picked her up and later burned her. The sacrifices of the ancient Indians were in most cases voluntary, with the exception of the sacrifices of prisoners of war. Before the ritual of sacrifice, captured soldiers were treated like slaves, however, without the possibility of pardon and release. The ancient Aztecs also had other types of sacrifice, for example, torture. The victims were burned, shot with arrows, drowned, and parts of their bodies were fed to sacred animals. The Aztec tribe was famous for its cruelty. The line between sacrificial torture and torture of captured soldiers and nobles is difficult to keep track of.

Aztec capital.

Legends and traditions

The Aztec culture is associated with a cultural complex known as the Nahua because of its common language.

According to legend, the various groups that would become the Aztecs came to the Anahuac Valley around Lake Texcoco from the north. The location of these valleys and lakes are known for sure - this is the heart of modern Mexico City, but it is not known for certain where the Aztec people come from.

Legend has it that the ancestors of the Aztecs came from the north, from a place called Aztlan, and belonged to the last of the seven Nahuatlacs(ast. nahuatlaca, "Nahuatl speakers", from the word "tlaca" meaning "person"). According to legend, the Aztecs were led by the god Huitzilopochtli (Ast. Huitzilopochtli), which means “hummingbird of the left side,” “left-handed hummingbird.” There is a well-known legend about an eagle sitting on a cactus on an island in the middle of a lake and eating a snake - an image from a prophecy that said that it was in such a place that a new house. This scene - an eagle eating a snake - is depicted on the Mexican flag.

By the time the Aztecs arrived, the lands around Lake Texcoco had long been divided between coastal city-states. Recognizing the supreme authority of the ruler of the city of Azcapotzalco, the Aztecs settled on two small islands and built Tlatelolco (Tlaltelolco). Tenochtitlan (the city of Tenocha) was founded in. Over time, it became a large artificial island, now this place is the center of Mexico City.

According to legend, when the Aztecs arrived in the Anahuac Valley, the local population considered them the most uncivilized group, but the Aztecs decided to learn; and they took all the knowledge they could from other peoples, mostly from the ancient Toltecs (whom they may have confused with the more ancient civilization Teotihuacan). For the Aztecs, the Toltecs were the creators of the entire culture, the word "Toltecayotl" was synonymous with culture. Aztec legends identify the Toltecs and the cult of Quetzalcoatl with the mythical city of Tollan (modern Tula, Hidalgo, Mexico), which they also identified with the more ancient Teotihuacan.

The Aztecs adopted and combined some traditions with their own; among them is the myth of the creation of the world, which describes four great eras, each of which ended in a universal catastrophe. Our era - Nahui-Ollin (Ast. Nahui-Ollin), the fifth era, the fifth sun or fifth creation - escaped destruction thanks to the self-sacrifice of the god Nanahuatl, which means “all in wounds” (in Russian it is usually translated “all in buboes”; the smallest and most humble god, suffering from pain caused by a serious illness; he turned into the Sun). This myth is associated with the ancient city of Teotihuacan (lit. “place of transformation into a god”), which was already abandoned and abandoned at the time when the Aztecs came to the valley of modern Mexico City.

Another myth describes the Earth as the creation of two twin gods - Tezcatlipoca (ast. Tezcatlipoca) and Quetzalcoatl. Tezcatlipoca lost his foot during the creation of the world, so he is depicted without a foot and with an exposed bone. In some varieties of the cult, Quetzalcoatl is also called the white Tezcatlipoca.

Aztec Empire

Evolution of Aztec territorial possessions

The Aztec Empire, like most European empires, was quite ethnically diverse; it was more of a unified system of tribute collection than a unified system of government. In this context, Arnold Toynbee draws an analogy with the Assyrian Empire.

Although cities under Aztec rule were subject to heavy tribute, excavations show a steady increase in the wealth of the commoners after the subjugation of these cities. Trade was carried out even with enemy cities. The only people who defeated the Aztecs - the Purépecha (Ast. purépecha) - were the main manufacturer of copper axes.

The main administrative contribution of the Aztecs was the system of communications between conquered cities. There were no draft animals or wheeled vehicles in Mesoamerica, and roads were built for travel on foot. Usually the construction of roads was part of the tribute. The roads were constantly monitored so that even women could travel alone; travelers could rest, eat and even recover in special places equipped for this purpose, located every 10-15 kilometers. Also, messengers constantly plied along these routes ( Painani), keeping the Aztecs informed of the latest events.

The creation of the Aztec Empire led to one of the largest population explosions: the population of Mesoamerica increased from 10 to 15 million people.

The most important official of the government of Tenochtitlan is commonly referred to by Europeans as the Aztec Emperor. From the Nahuatl language, the title of Emperor Huey Tlahtoani (Ast. Huey Tlahtoani) translates roughly as “Great Orator”: Tlatocque(Ast. tlatoque, “speakers”) were the aristocracy, the highest class of society. The Tlatoani's power grew with the rise of Tenochtitlan. By the time of Ahuitzotl's reign, the title "tlatoani" can already be considered an analogue of the imperial title, but, as in the Holy Roman Empire, it was not inherited.

By the time of the Conquest, the Aztec state occupied the territory from the Gulf of Mexico to Pacific Ocean, from the mouths of the Balsas and Panukodo rivers to the Mayan lands. Separate colonies existed in the lands of modern Guatemala, Peru, Colombia and Venezuela. On the other hand, the city-state of Tlaxcala in the north of the Pueblo Valley did not submit to the Aztecs.

Aztec society

Class structure

Traditionally, society was divided into two social strata, or classes: masehualli(ast. macehualli, people), or peasantry, and pilly(ast. pilli), or to know. Initially, the status of the nobility was not inherited, even among sons pilly had better access to resources and training, so it was easier for them to become pilly. Over time, social status began to be inherited. In a similar way, Aztec warriors became pilly thanks to his military achievements. Only those who took prisoners in war could become permanent warriors; and over time, military glory and the spoils of war made them pillies. Once an Aztec warrior captured four or five captives, he was called tekihua(ast. tequiua), and he could achieve the rank of Eagle or Jaguar; he could later gain rank tlacateccatl(ast. tlacateccatl) or tlacochcalcatl(ast. tlacochcalcatl). To become Tlatoani, it was necessary to capture at least 17 prisoners. When a youth came of age, he did not cut his hair until he had captured his first captive; sometimes two or three young men united for this purpose, then they were called yak(ast. iyac). If after a certain time - usually three battles - they could not take a prisoner, they became masehualli(ast. macehualli); it was considered a disgrace to be a warrior with long hair, meaning the absence of prisoners; however, there were also those who preferred to be macehualli.

The rich spoils of war led to the emergence of a third class that was not part of traditional Aztec society: post office(ast. pochtecatl), or traders. Their activities were not exclusively commercial; The Pochteka were also good spies. The warriors despised them, but one way or another they gave them the loot in exchange for blankets, feathers, slaves and other goods.

In the later years of the empire the concept masehualli has changed. Eduardo Noguera estimated that only 20% of the population was engaged in agriculture and food production. A management system called chinampa(ast. chinampa), was very effective, it could provide food for about 190,000 inhabitants. Also, a significant amount of food was obtained in the form of tribute and through trade. The Aztecs were not only conquerors, but also skilled artisans and enterprising traders. Later, most of the Macehualli devoted themselves to arts and crafts, and their work was an important source of income for the city.

Excavations of some Aztec cities show that most luxury goods were produced in Tenochtitlan. More research is needed to establish whether this is true for other areas; but if trade was as important to the Aztec economy as it appears, this may explain the rise post office as an influential class.

Slavery

Slaves, or tlacotin, also formed an important class distinct from prisoners of war. This slavery was also very different from what was observed in the European colonies, and had many similarities with the slavery of classical antiquity. Firstly, slavery was personal, not inherited, the children of a slave were free. A slave could have personal property and even his own slaves. Slaves could buy their freedom, and slaves could be freed if they were able to prove that they had been mistreated, or had children with their owners, or were married to their owners.

Typically, upon the death of the owner, those slaves whose work was highly valued were freed. The remaining slaves were passed on as part of the inheritance.

Another very amazing method of freeing a slave was described by Manuel Orozco y Berra (Spanish. Manuel Orozco y Berra): if in the market a slave could escape the close observation of his master, run outside the walls of the market and step in human excrement, he could present his case to the judges, who would set him free. The former slave was then washed, given new clothes (to prevent him or her from wearing clothes that belonged to the former master), and declared free. And since, in complete contrast to the practices in the European colonies, a person could be declared a slave if he tried to prevent the slave from escaping (unless he was a relative of the owner), no one tried to help the owner catch the slave.

Orozco y Berra also writes that a slave could not be sold without his consent, unless the authorities classified the slave as disobedient. (Disobedience was defined by laziness, attempts to escape, and bad behavior). Unruly slaves were forced to wear wooden neck shackles with hoops at the back. Shackles were not just a sign of guilt; their design made escape in crowds or narrow passages more difficult.

When purchasing a shackled slave, the buyer was told how many times the slave had been resold. A slave sold four times as disobedient could be sold for sacrifice; such slaves were sold for a higher price.

However, if a chained slave sought representation in a royal palace or temple, he received his freedom.

An Aztec could become a slave as punishment. A murderer sentenced to death could be given as a slave to the widow of the murdered man at her request. A father could sell his son into slavery if the authorities declared his son disobedient. Debtors who did not pay their debts could also be sold as slaves.

In addition, the Aztecs could sell themselves as slaves. They could remain free long enough to enjoy the price of their freedom - about a year - after which they went to a new owner. This was usually the lot of unlucky gamblers and old “auini” (Ast. ahuini) - courtesans or prostitutes.

It should be noted that a person was not always sacrificed; Animal sacrifices were frequent, for which the Aztecs bred a special breed of llamas. They also sacrificed things: they were broken in honor of the gods. The cult of Quetzalcoatl required the sacrifice of butterflies and hummingbirds. Self-sacrifice was also practiced; during special ceremonies, people inflicted wounds on themselves, performing ritual bloodletting; wore special spikes that constantly wounded the body. Blood was central to Mesoamerican cultures. There are many myths in which the Nahua gods sacrifice their blood to help humanity. In the myth of the Fifth Sun, the gods sacrifice themselves so that people can live. (All sacrifices are to maintain the energy of the sun, which, according to the Aztecs, gives them life)

All this prepared people for the highest sacrifice - human sacrifice. Usually the victim's skin was painted with blue chalk (the color of the sacrifice); then the victim was brought to the top platform of a huge pyramid. Here the victim was laid on a stone slab, the victim’s stomach was cut with a ritual knife (it is difficult to open the chest with an obsidian knife), after which the victim’s heart was taken out and raised up to the Sun. The heart was placed in a special stone vessel - kuauchikalli or chak-mool, and the body was thrown onto the stairs, from where the priests dragged it away. The sacrifice was considered (and, as a rule, was) voluntary, but not in cases of prisoners; if faith was not enough, drugs could be used. Then they got rid of the body parts different ways: the entrails were fed to animals, the skull was polished and displayed in tzompantli(ast. tzompantli), and the rest was either burned or cut into small pieces and offered as gifts to important people. Recent (2005) archaeological evidence indicates the removal of muscle and skin from some of the remains discovered in a large temple complex.

There were other types of human sacrifice, including torture. The victim was shot with arrows, burned or drowned. It’s difficult to keep track of the measure here. Aztec chronicles describe how some 84,400 captives were sacrificed over four days to build the main temple. However, it is unclear how the city's population of 120,000 people was able to capture, house and dispose of so many captives, especially considering the fact that Ahuitzotl sacrificed them with his own hands. This equates to 17 sacrifices per minute for four days. Some scholars believe that the number of casualties could not have exceeded 3,000 and that the number of deaths was inflated for war propaganda purposes.

Other figures are taken from Bernal Diaz del Castillo (Spanish). Bernal Diaz del Castillo), a Spanish soldier who wrote his reports for 50 years after the conquest. When describing tzompantli, a place with the skulls of victims, he counts about 100,000 skulls. However, to accommodate such a number of skulls, the tzompantli would have to be several kilometers long instead of the described 30 meters. Modern reconstructions count between 600 and 1,200 skulls. Likewise, Díaz stated that the tzompantli of Tlaltelolco, as important as that of Tenochtitlan, contained 60,000 skulls. According to the book by William Ahrens William Arens), 300 skulls were found during excavations.

Typical reports of Aztec cannibalism:

Cortez writes in one of his letters that his soldiers caught an Aztec roasting a baby for breakfast.
Gomarra writes that during the capture of Tenochtitlan, the Spaniards invited the Aztecs to surrender because they (the Aztecs) had no food. The Aztecs invited the Spaniards to attack, only to be captured and eaten.
In Bernardino de Sahagún's books there is an illustration showing an Aztec being roasted by an unknown tribe. The caption under the illustration says that this was one of the dangers that threatened Aztec traders.
In the annals of Ramirez, compiled by the Aztecs after the conquest, in the Latin alphabet, it is written that at the end of the sacrifice, the meat of the victim's palms was given as a gift to the warrior who captured it. According to the chronicle, meat was supposed to be eaten, but in fact it was replaced with turkey.
In his book, Juan Bautista de Pomar states that after the sacrifice, the body of the victim was given to the warrior who captured the victim, and then the warrior boiled it so that it could be cut into small pieces in order to offer them as gifts to important people in exchange for gifts and slaves; but this meat was rarely eaten, since it was believed that it had no value; it was replaced with turkey or simply thrown away.

Recent archaeological finds (2005) in the basements of Aztec temples indicate incisions indicating the removal of muscles. However, not all bodies have such cuts.

Poetry

Poetry was the only worthy occupation of the Aztec warrior in times of peace. Despite the upheavals of the era, a number of poetic works collected during the Conquest have reached us. For several dozen poetic texts, the names of the authors are even known, for example Nezahualcoyotl (ast. Nezahualcóyotl) and Cuacuatzin (ast. Cuacuatzin). Miguel Leon-Portilla, the most famous translator of Nahuatl, reports that it is in poetry that we can find the true intentions and thoughts of the Aztecs, regardless of the “official” worldview.

In the basement of the Great Temple (Spanish) Templo Mayor) was the “House of the Eagles” (see also “House of the Jaguars”), where in peacetime Aztec military leaders could drink foaming chocolate, smoke good cigars and compete in poetry. The poems were accompanied by playing percussion instruments (ast. teponaztli). One of the most common themes (among surviving texts) of the poems is “is life reality or a dream?” and the opportunity to meet the Creator.

The largest collection of poems was collected by Juan Bautista de Pomar. This collection was later translated into Spanish by Leon-Portilla's teacher. Juan Bautista de Pomar was the great-grandson of Nezahualcoyotl. He spoke Nahuatl, but was raised as a Christian, and wrote down his grandfather's poems in Latin characters.

The Aztecs loved drama, but the Aztec version of this art form would hardly be called theater. The most famous genres are performances with music and acrobatic performances and performances of the gods.

Modern Aztecs

Bibliography

Aztec sources

Prester Juan; Antonio Perez; fry Pedro de los Rios (glosses). Codex Telleriano-Remensis. www.kuprienko.info. - Ukraine, Kyiv, 2010. Translation from Spanish - A. Skromnitsky, V. Talakh. Archived from the original on August 22, 2011. Retrieved August 16, 2010.
Anonymous author. Codex Mendoza. . www.kuprienko.info (December 1, 2010). - Ukraine, Kyiv, 2010. Translation from Spanish - A. Skromnitsky, V. Talakh. Archived from the original on August 24, 2011. Retrieved December 1, 2010.
Anonymous authors. Codex Magliabecca (XVI century). . www.kuprienko.info (August 17, 2011). - Ukraine, Kyiv, 2011. Translation from Spanish - V. Talakh.. Archived from the original source on February 5, 2012. Retrieved on August 17, 2011.

Mayan springs

Talakh V. M. (ed.) Documents of Pashbolon-Maldonado (Campeche, Mexico, 17th century). (Russian) . kuprienko.info(June 26, 2012). Archived from the original on June 28, 2012. Retrieved June 27, 2012.

Spanish sources

Fray Bernardino de Sahagún."Customs and Beliefs" (excerpt from the book "General History of the Affairs of New Spain"). www.kuprienko.info (April 16, 2006). - Ukraine, Kyiv, 2006. Translation from Spanish - A. Skromnitsky. Archived from the original on August 27, 2011. Retrieved July 29, 2010.
"History of the Mexicans by Their Drawings" (16th century document on the religion and history of the Colua-Mexica or Aztecs.)
"A Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and the Great City of Temestitan, Mexico City" (written by Hernán Cortés's companion, Conquistador Anonymous)
Cortes, Hernan "Second Epistle to Emperor Charles V" (letter written in Segura de la Frontera, October 30, 1520)
Alva Ixtlilxochitl, Fernando de. The history of the Chichimec people, their settlement and settlement in the country of Anahuac. . www.kuprienko.info (March 22, 2010). - per. from Spanish - V. Talakh, Ukraine, Kyiv, 2010. Archived from the original on August 23, 2011. Retrieved June 29, 2010.
Juan Bautista de Pomar. Message from Texcoco. . www.kuprienko.info (May 16, 2011). - per. from Spanish - V. Talakh, Ukraine, Kyiv, 2011. Archived from the original on August 27, 2011. Retrieved May 16, 2011.

Literature

Mythological Dictionary/Ed. E. M. Meletinsky - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1991
Baglay V.E., “Aztecs. History, economics, socio-political system"
Galich, Manuel. "History of Pre-Columbian Civilizations"
Zubarev V.G.,
Kinzhalov, Rostislav on Ozone
Keram, K., “Gods, Tombs, Scientists”, “Treasures of Montezuma”, “The First American. The mystery of the Indians of the pre-Columbian era"
Kosidovsky, Zeno, “How Cortes conquered the country of the Aztecs”, “The end of the eaters of human hearts”
Kuzmishchev, Vladimir Alexandrovich on Ozone
Sodi, Demetrio, "Great Cultures of Mesoamerica" - "Aztecs"
Stingle, Miloslav. “Indians Without Tomahawks”, “Worshippers of the Stars”, “Secrets of the Indian Pyramids”
Soustelle, Jacques “AZTECS. Warlike subjects of Montezuma"
Miguel Leon-Portilla, "Nagua Philosophy"
Encyclopedia "Vanished Civilizations", "Aztecs: Empire of Blood and Majesty"
Gulyaev V.I. “In the footsteps of the conquistadors”, “Science”, 1976, - 160 p.
Aguilar-Moreno M. Aztecs: Encycl. reference book / Transl. from English - M.: Veche, 2011. - 544 p. - (Library of World History). - 3000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-9533-4666-5

Rider Haggard - Montezuma's Daughter

Notes

Links

// Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: In 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional ones). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.

Aztecs
Background	Akolhua \| Toltec \| Chichimeca
Cities and regions	Azcapotzalco \| Coatlinchan \| Tenochtitlan \| Tlatelolco \| Texcoco
Rulers of Tenochtitlan	Tenoch (? - approx.) \| Acamapichtli (-) \| Huitzilihuitl (-) \| Chimalpopoka (-) \| Itzcoatl (-) \| Montezuma I (-) \| Axayacatl (-) \| Vise (-) \| Ahuizotl (-) \| Montezuma II (-) \| Cuitlahuac () \| Cuauhtémoc (-)
Rivals and neighbors	Cuscatlan \| Mixtec \| Otomi \| Zapotec \| Tarascan \| Tlaxcalteca \| Akolhua
Army, weapons	Army \| Weapons \| Generals \| Tactics \| Flower Wars \| Spear Thrower \| Eagle Warriors \| Jaguar Warriors
Society, family, economy	Right \| Economics \| Education \| Family \| Community \| Roads \| Irrigation \| Channels \| Trade \| Farming \| Cattle breeding \| Ceramics
Mythology and religion	Aztec Mythology \| Aztec sacrifices \| Aztlan \| Tollan Iztaccihuatl \|

And by Mexican scientists of the 19th century as a means of distinguishing contemporary Mexicans from the indigenous Indian population.

The Aztecs themselves called themselves “mexica”, or “tenochka” and “tlaltelolca” - depending on the city of origin (Tenochtitlan, Tlatelolco). As for the origin of the word “Mexica” (Ast. mēxihcah, from which the word “Mexico” comes), very different versions of its etymology are expressed: the word “Sun” in the Nahuatl language, the name of the Aztec leader Mexitli (Mexitli, Mextli), a type of algae, native to Lake Texcoco. The most famous translator of the Nahuatl language, Miguel Leon-Portilla (Spanish. Miguel Leon-Portilla), states that this word means "middle of the moon" - from the words metztli (Mekstli, Metztli, Meshtli, Metztli - Moon) and xictli(middle). The self-name “tenochki” may come from the name of Tenoch, another legendary ruler.

Story

The Aztec tribe came to the Valley of Mexico from the north - from lands that now belong to the United States. At that time, the entire territory of the valley was divided between local tribes, and, naturally, none of them wanted to share the land with strangers. After consulting, the local leaders decided [ ] give the uninhabited island on Lake Texcoco to strangers. There were a lot of snakes on the island, so the locals expected that strangers on the island would have a hard time.

Arriving on the island, the Aztecs were happy because snakes were their food. The Aztecs saw an eagle holding a snake in its paws as a good omen.

The creation of the Aztec Empire led to one of the largest population explosions: the population of Mesoamerica increased [ When?] from 10 to 15 million people [ ] .

The most important official of the government of Tenochtitlan is commonly referred to by Europeans as the Aztec Emperor. From the Nahuatl language, the title of Emperor Huey Tlahtoani (Ast. Huey Tlahtoani) is roughly translated as “Great Orator”: Tlatocque(Ast. tlatoque, “speakers”) were the aristocracy, the highest class of society. The Tlatoani's power grew with the rise of Tenochtitlan. By the time of Ahuitzotl's reign, the title "tlatoani" can already be considered an analogue of the imperial title, but, as in the Holy Roman Empire, it was not inherited.

In the middle of the 15th century, Tlacaelel played an important role in the empire ( Tlahcaelel from Nahuatl - “brave heart”). He could become Tlatoani(Ast. tlahtoani), but chose to remain in the shadow of the jaguar's mat. Tlacaelel was a nephew Tlatoani Itzcoatl (ast. Itzcoatl) and brother of Chimalpopoca (ast. Chimalpopoca) and Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina (ast. Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina) and bore the title “Cihuacoatl” (Chihuacoatl; ast. Cihuacóatl, in honor of the goddess Chihuacóatl, the equivalent of an adviser); as written in Ramirez's manuscript, "what Tlacaelel ordered was carried out as quickly as possible." He was a tough reformer; he created a new structure for governing the country, ordered most of the Aztec books to be burned, claiming that they were all false, and rewrote Aztec history. In addition, Tlacaelel reformed the religion, placing the tribal god Huitzilopochtli on the same level as the ancient gods Tlaloc, Tezcatlipoca, and Quetzalcoatl. His exploits include (perhaps exaggerating) the introduction of the custom of “flower wars” and the establishment of constant human sacrifices so that the Sun continued to move across the sky. These establishments served to speed up the fall of the Aztec empire during the Conquest and the campaign of Cortez.

By the time of the Conquest, the Aztec state occupied the territory from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean, from the mouths of the Balsas and Panukodo rivers to the Mayan lands. On the other hand, the city-state of Tlaxcala in the north of the Pueblo Valley did not submit to the Aztecs.

Aztec society

Class structure

Traditionally, society was divided into different social strata, or classes, including: masehualli(ast. macehualli, people), or peasantry, and pilly(ast. pilli), or to know [ ] . Initially, the status of the nobility was not inherited, even among sons pilly had better access to resources and training, so it was easier for them to become pilly. Over time, social status began to be inherited. In a similar way, Aztec warriors became pilly thanks to his military achievements. Only those who took prisoners in war could become permanent warriors; and over time, military glory and the spoils of war made them pillies. Once an Aztec warrior captured four or five captives, he was called tekihua(ast. tequiua), and he could achieve the rank of Eagle or Jaguar; he could later gain rank tlacateccatl(ast. tlacateccatl) or tlacochcalcatl(ast. tlacochcalcatl). To become Tlatoani, it was necessary to capture at least 17 prisoners [ ] . When a youth came of age, he did not cut his hair until he had captured his first captive; sometimes two or three young men united for this purpose, then they were called yak(ast. iyac). If after a certain time - usually three battles - they could not take a prisoner, they became masehualli(ast. macehualli); it was considered a disgrace to be a warrior with long hair, signifying the absence of prisoners; however, there were also those who preferred to be macehualli.

In the later years of the empire the concept masehualli has changed. Eduardo Noguera estimated that only 20% of the population was engaged in agriculture and food production. A management system called chinampa(ast. chinampa), was very effective, it could provide food for about 190,000 inhabitants [ ] . Also, a significant amount of food was obtained in the form of tribute and through trade. The Aztecs were not only conquerors, but also skilled artisans and enterprising traders. Later, most of the Macehualli devoted themselves to arts and crafts, and their work was an important source of income for the city.

Slavery

Slaves, or tlacotin, also formed an important class distinct from prisoners of war. This slavery was also very different from what was observed in the European colonies, and had many similarities with the slavery of classical antiquity. First, slavery was personal; the children of a slave were free. A slave could have personal property and even his own slaves. Slaves could buy their freedom, and slaves could be freed if they were able to prove that they had been mistreated, or had children with their owners, or were married to their owners.

Usually, upon the death of the owner, those slaves whose work was highly valued were freed. The remaining slaves were passed on as part of the inheritance.

Another very amazing method of freeing a slave was described by Manuel Orozco y Berra (Spanish. Manuel Orozco y Berra): if in the market a slave could escape the close supervision of his master, run outside the market walls and step in human excrement, he could present his case to the judges, who would set him free. The former slave was then washed, given new clothes (so that he would not wear clothes belonging to the former master) and declared free. And since, in complete contrast to the practices in the European colonies, a person could be declared a slave if he tried to prevent the slave from escaping (unless he was a relative of the owner), no one tried to help the owner catch the slave.

Orozco y Berra also writes that a slave could not be sold without his consent, unless the authorities classified the slave as disobedient: disobedience was defined by laziness, attempts to escape, and bad behavior. Unruly slaves were forced to wear wooden neck shackles with hoops at the back. Shackles were not just a sign of guilt; their design made escape in crowds or narrow passages more difficult.

However, if a chained slave sought representation in a royal palace or temple, he received his freedom.

Fun and games

Although it was possible to drink pulque, a fermented drink with a low alcohol content, the Aztecs were prohibited from getting drunk until they were old; violation of this prohibition was punishable by death.

As in modern Mexico, the Aztecs were passionate ball players, but in their case it was tlachtli, an Aztec version of the ancient Mesoamerican game ulama. This game was played with a solid rubber ball the size of a human head. The ball was called “olli” (Ast. olli), where the Spanish “ule” comes from (Spanish. hule), meaning rubber.

Aztec cities usually had two special complexes for this game. Players could hit the ball with their hips; The object of the game was to throw the ball through a stone hoop. The lucky player who managed to do this was given the right to take away the audience's blankets, so victory was accompanied by running, screaming and laughter. People bet on the results of the game. The poor could stake their food, the pilli could stake their wealth, the “tekutli” (ast. tecutli, owners) could put their concubines or even cities on the line, and those who had nothing put their freedom on the line and risked becoming slaves.

Education and science

Education

Children were usually taught by their parents. From the age of five, some boys attended school, where they were taught to write and count. All schoolchildren wore the same hairstyles: a braid on one side. On the other hand, the hair was shaved bald. There was an oral tradition (a set of wise instructions) called huehuetlatolly(ast. huehuetlatolli) (“sayings of the old people”), where the moral and ethical ideals of the Aztecs were described. There were special sayings for each occasion: for greetings, wishes at the birth of a child, words of farewell at death. Fathers reminded their daughters to be attractive, but not to wear too much makeup so as not to look like auiani(ast. ahuiani). Mothers advised their daughters to support their husband, even if he turned out to be a humble peasant. Boys were taught to be humble, obedient and hardworking.

There were two types of educational institutions: in schools called “ tepochkali"(Ast. tepochcalli), taught history, religion, military art, as well as trade or craft (peasant or artisan); in schools " calmecac"(Ast. calmecac), where the sons mainly went pilly, focused on training leaders (“ Tlactocans"), priests, scientists and teachers "tlatinimi" (ast. tlatinimi) and scribes "tlacuilo" (ast. tlacuilo). They studied rituals, literacy, chronology, poetry and, as in “ tepochkali", martial arts.

It is not entirely clear whether the schools were intended " calmecac"exclusively for offspring" pilly“or not: so, according to some sources, young people had the opportunity to choose where exactly to study. It is quite possible that ordinary people preferred " tepochkali", since it was easier for a commoner to rise to the top using his military abilities; the path of the priest or " tlaquilo" (ast. tlacuilo) could not provide the young man with the same rapid growth in society.

There were two main opportunities for gifted children: some were sent to the song and dance house, and others to the ball house. Both occupations had high status.

Medicine

Almost all chroniclers of the 16th century briefly mentioned the healing and medicinal plants of Mesoamerica (Hernán Cortes, Bernal Díaz del Castillo, Diego Duran, Tesosomoc, Ixtlilxochitl, Torquemada, Motolinia, Mendieta, Acosta, Martín de la Cruz, Sahagún). It should be noted that Bernardino de Sahagún approached this issue with particular enthusiasm, describing the plants themselves, giving their local names, and in some cases, their place of growth. In his General History of the Affairs of New Spain, Sahagún himself described 123 medicinal herbs, while the texts of his informants mention 266 plants.

Sahagun's data differs from those collected by previously baptized Aztec Martin de la Cruz (), who wrote an illustrated manuscript in Nahuatl, translated into Latin by Juan Badiano entitled "Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis" (or " Codex De la Cruz Badiano") on 63 sheets. Only 15 plants of the latter coincide with those of Sahagun, and 29 plants coincide with those of the Indian informants. In total, in the codex (books X and XI), 251 medicinal plants are described in special sections on herbs and 185 color drawings are given. Today, many of them have been studied and introduced into world medical practice. However, most of them remain unknown modern science.

Religion and mythology

Legends and traditions

The Aztec culture is associated with a cultural complex known as the Nahua because of its common language.

Legend has it that the ancestors of the Aztecs came from the north, from a place called Aztlan, and belonged to the last of the seven Nahuatlacs(ast. nahuatlaca, "Nahuatl speakers", from the word "tlaca" meaning "person"). According to legend, the Aztecs were led by the god Huitzilopochtli (Ast. Huitzilopochtli), which means “hummingbird of the south.” There is a well-known legend about an eagle sitting on a cactus on an island in the middle of a lake and eating a snake - an image from a prophecy that said that a new house should be founded in such a place. This scene - an eagle eating a snake - is depicted on the Mexican flag.

According to legend, when the Aztecs arrived in the Anahuac Valley, they were considered by the local population to be the most uncivilized group, but the Aztecs decided to learn; and they took all the knowledge they could from other peoples - mostly from the ancient Toltecs (whom they may have confused with the older civilization of Teotihuacan). For the Aztecs, the Toltecs were the creators of the entire culture, the word "Toltecayotl" was synonymous with culture. Aztec legends identify the Toltecs and the cult of Quetzalcoatl with the mythical city of Tollan (modern Tula, Hidalgo, Mexico), which they also identified with the more ancient Teotihuacan.

The Aztecs adopted and combined some traditions with their own; among them is the myth of the creation of the world, which describes four great eras, each of which ended in a universal catastrophe. Our era - Nahui-Ollin, the fifth era, the fifth sun or the fifth creation - escaped destruction thanks to the self-sacrifice of the god Nanahuatl, which means “all in wounds” (in Russian usually translated “all in buboes”; the smallest and humblest god who suffered from pain caused by a serious illness; he turned into the Sun). This myth is associated with the ancient city of Teotihuacan (lit. “place of transformation into a god”), which was already abandoned and abandoned at the time when the Aztecs came to the valley of modern Mexico City.

Sacrifices

It should be noted that a person was not always sacrificed; Animal sacrifices were frequent. They also sacrificed things: they were broken in honor of the gods. The cult of Quetzalcoatl required the sacrifice of butterflies and hummingbirds. Self-sacrifice was also practiced; during special ceremonies, people inflicted wounds on themselves, performing ritual bloodletting; wore special spikes that constantly wounded the body. Blood was central to Mesoamerican cultures. There are many myths in which the Nahua gods sacrifice their blood to help humanity. In the myth of the Fifth Sun, the gods sacrifice themselves so that people can live. (All sacrifices are to maintain the energy of the sun, which, according to the Aztecs, gives them life)

All this prepared people for the highest sacrifice - human sacrifice. Usually the victim's skin was painted with blue chalk (the color of the sacrifice); then the victim was brought to the top platform of a huge pyramid. Here the victim was laid on a stone slab, the victim’s stomach was cut with a ritual knife (it is difficult to open the chest with an obsidian knife), after which the victim’s heart was taken out and raised up to the Sun. The heart was placed in a special stone vessel - kuauchikalli or chak-mool, and the body was thrown onto the stairs, from where the priests dragged it away. The sacrifice was considered (and, as a rule, was) voluntary, but not in cases of prisoners; if faith was not enough, drugs could be used [ ] . Then the body parts were disposed of in various ways: the entrails were fed to animals, the skull was polished and displayed in tzompantli(ast. tzompantli), and the rest was either burned or cut into small pieces and offered as gifts to important people. Recent (2005) archaeological evidence indicates the removal of muscle and skin from some of the remains discovered in a large temple complex [ ] .

There were other types of human sacrifice, including torture. The victim was shot with arrows, burned or drowned [ ] . Aztec chronicles describe [ ], how about 20,000 captives were sacrificed in four days to build the main temple. However, it is unclear how the city's population of 120,000 people was able to capture, house and dispose of so many captives, especially considering the fact that Ahuitzotl sacrificed them with his own hands. This equates to 17 sacrifices per minute for four days. Some scholars believe that the number of casualties could not have exceeded 3,000 and that the number of deaths was inflated for war propaganda purposes.

Other figures are taken from Bernal Diaz del Castillo (Spanish). Bernal Diaz del Castillo ), a Spanish soldier who wrote his reports for 50 years after the conquest. When describing tzompantli, a place with the skulls of victims, he counts about 100,000 skulls. However, to accommodate such a number of skulls, the tzompantli would have to be several kilometers long instead of the described 30 meters. Modern reconstructions count between 600 and 1,200 skulls. Likewise, Díaz stated that the tzompantli of Tlaltelolco, as important as that of Tenochtitlan, contained 60,000 skulls. According to the book by William Arens, 300 skulls were found during the excavations.

Although many historians agree on the existence of ritual cannibalism associated with human sacrifice, most scholars do not support Harris's thesis that human meat formed a significant part of the Aztec diet.

There is little information regarding Aztec cannibalism. There are only a few reports of cannibalism since the Conquest, none of which involve widespread ritual cannibalism. Ramirez's chronicle ambiguously links cannibalism with ritual sacrifice. The Codex Magliabechiano contains two drawings that clearly depict human flesh being eaten: in a ritual of worship of the lord of the underworld, Mictlantecuhtli, and in a funeral rite, where a human hand lies along with other food. There, in a commentary in Spanish, it is said that the Indians were very fond of the pork brought by the Spaniards, since it reminded them of the taste of human meat.

Characteristic reports of Aztec cannibalism [ ] :

Cortez writes in one of his letters that his soldiers caught an Aztec roasting a baby for breakfast.
Gomarra writes that during the capture of Tenochtitlan, the Spaniards invited the Aztecs to surrender because they (the Aztecs) had no food. The Aztecs invited the Spaniards to attack, only to be captured and eaten.
In Bernardino de Sahagún's books there is an illustration showing an Aztec being roasted by an unknown tribe. The caption under the illustration says that this was one of the dangers that threatened Aztec traders.
In the annals of Ramirez, compiled by the Aztecs after the conquest, in the Latin alphabet, it is written that at the end of the sacrifice, the meat of the victim's palms was given as a gift to the warrior who captured it. According to the chronicle, meat was supposed to be eaten, but in fact it was replaced with turkey.
In his book, Juan Bautista de Pomar states that after the sacrifice, the body of the victim was given to the warrior who captured the victim, and then the warrior boiled it so that it could be cut into small pieces in order to offer them as gifts to important people in exchange for gifts and slaves; but this meat was rarely eaten, since it was believed that it had no value; it was replaced with turkey or simply thrown away.

Art

Poetry

Life

Cloth

Men's clothing and women's clothing were decorated with ornaments, among which the most common were: the sun; geometric figures; gems, shells; animal motifs (rabbits, feathers, snakes, butterflies, fish); plants (cacti); falling snow. If we consider the clothing of the Aztecs by gender, it looked like this: the main attribute of men's clothing is the maxlatl (a loincloth that was not removed even at night; reminiscent of modern diapers). The maxlatl was worn by boys from the age of thirteen. The main outer garment is the tilmatli (cloak). Rectangular piece the fabric was tied in a knot on the chest or shoulder in such a way that the body and legs were covered in front. The poor classes wore almost plain white cloaks and headbands, while the wealthy men wore embroidered, colorful outfits. The warrior who captured the first enemy had flowers or a scorpion embroidered on his cloak; after two prisoners the cape was trimmed with a red border; the third feat was rewarded with a luxuriously embroidered cloak. Experienced warriors wore red capes with white stripes. The priests wore dark green or black tilmatli with images of bones and skulls, and only the “emperor” - the tlatoani - wore the green-blue cloak "shiutilmatli". Aztec men's clothing was also in use: chicolli (a tunic with short sleeves, replacing a cloak), itzkaupilli (a tight-fitting cotton quilted shirt, replacing armor). If a man dared to wear a suit that did not correspond to his class, he could incur severe punishment, sometimes even death. A mandatory attribute of women's clothing is a long skirt. Village women walked with bare breasts, and representatives of the upper classes wore a huipil (a long blouse with embroidery at the neck) over their skirts. When going out into the streets, women threw a quechquemitl (a beautifully decorated diamond-shaped cape) over their shoulders. Commoners did not have shoes, but warriors and rich people had cactli (sandals made of leather or agave fibers). Aztec clothing included headdresses, but they were worn only by the emperor’s personal guard (feather headbands) and the emperor himself (crown). The Aztecs chose haircuts quite responsibly, since the hairstyle testified to class status and other achievements. Jewelry, as opposed to restraint with cosmetics, was too rich, numerous, and exquisite.

Nutrition

The Aztecs created artificial islands, or chinampas, on Lake Texcoco; Cereals and horticultural crops were grown on these islands. The staple foods of the Aztecs were maize (corn), beans and cucurbits. Chinampas were very effective and produced up to seven harvests per year, based on current harvests chinampa it was estimated that 1 hectare chinampa can feed 20 people, and with 9,000 hectares chinampa collected food for 180,000 people.

The Aztecs grew many different varieties of corn from wide range amino acids; in addition, they grew amaranth, the grains of which contain a lot of protein. Moreover, the Aztecs had a wide variety of other foods: they caught acocyls, small shrimp abundant in Lake Texcoco, and collected spirulina algae, rich in flavoproteins, which was used in different types baking; They also ate insects: crickets, worms, ants and larvae. Insects contain more protein than meat and are still a delicacy in some areas of Mexico to this day. The Aztecs kept domestic animals like the turkey (ast. guajolote) and the itzcuintli (ast. itzcuintli - a breed of meat dog), although the meat of these animals was usually intended for special occasions - situations of expression of gratitude and respect. Another source of meat was hunting - fallow deer, wild boar, ducks...

Montenallo's research showed that the average life expectancy of Mesoamericans was 37 years (±3 years) [ ] .

The Aztecs made extensive use of agave (maguey); food, sugar, drinks were obtained from it ( pulque) and fibers for ropes and clothing. Cotton and jewelry were only available to the elite. Cocoa beans were used as money. Subject cities paid annual tribute in the form of luxury goods (such as feathers and ornate costumes).

After the Spanish conquest, some food crops, such as amaranth, were banned, which led to a reduction in the diet and chronic malnutrition of the inhabitants [ ] .

Writing

The Aztecs had their own writing system, the Aztec script.

Bibliography

Aztec sources

Bernardino de Sahagun, S. A. Kuprienko. General history of the affairs of New Spain. Books X-XI: Knowledge of the Astecs in Medicine and Botany / Ed. and lane S. A. Kuprienko.. - K.: Vidavets Kuprienko S. A., 2013. - 218 p. - (Mesoamerica. Sources. History. Man). - ISBN 978-617-7085-07-1.
Anonymous authors. Codex Magliabecchi / Ed. and lane V.N. Talaha, S.A. Kuprienko. - K.: Vidavets Kuprienko S.A., 2013. - 202 p. - ISBN 978-617-7085-04-0.
Anonymous author. Codex Mendoza / Ed. and lane S. A. Kuprienko, V. N. Talakh.. - K.: Vidavets Kuprienko S. A., 2013. - 308 p. - ISBN 978-617-7085-05-7.
Presbyter Juan; Antonio Perez; fry Pedro de los Rios (glosses) . Mexican Manuscript 385 Codex Telleriano-Remensis (with additions from the Codex Rios) / Ed. and lane S. A. Kuprienko, V. N. Talakh.. - K.: Vidavets Kuprienko S. A., 2013. - 317 p. - ISBN 978-617-7085-06-4.
Talakh V.N., Kuprienko S.A./ Ed. V. N. Talakh, S. A. Kuprienko.. - K.: Vidavets Kuprienko S. A., 2013. - 370 p. - ISBN 978-617-7085-00-2.
Tales of the Suns. Myths and historical legends of Nahua / Ed. and lane S. A. Kuprienko, V. N. Talakh.. - K.: Vidavets Kuprienko S. A., 2014. - 377 p. - ISBN 978-617-7085-11-8.

Mayan springs

Talakh V. M. (ed.). Documents of Pashbolon-Maldonado (Campeche, Mexico, 17th century). (Russian). kuprienko.info(June 26, 2012). Retrieved June 27, 2012. Archived June 28, 2012.

Spanish sources

Fray Bernardino de Sahagún. “Customs and Beliefs” (excerpt from the book “General History” of the Affairs of New Spain) (undefined) . www.kuprienko.info (April 16, 2006). - Ukraine, Kyiv, 2006. Translation from Spanish - A. Skromnitsky. Retrieved July 29, 2010. Archived August 27, 2011.
Historians of Pre-Columbian America and the Conquest. Book one. Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl. Juan Bautista de Pomar / trans. from Spanish V. N. Talakha; edited by V. A. Rubel. - K.: Lybid, 2013. - 504 p. - ISBN 978-966-06-0647-0.
"History of the Mexicans by Their Pictures" (16th century document on the religion and history of the Colua-Mexica or Aztecs.)
“A Tale of Some Things of New Spain and the Great City of Temestitan Mexico City” (written by Hernán Cortés’s companion, Conquistador Anonymous)
Cortes, Hernan “Second Epistle to the Emperor Charles V” (letter written in Segura de la Frontera, October 30, 1520)

Aztecs. Short story

The Aztecs are relatively late newcomers to the Valley of Mexico. Many centuries before their appearance, cultural peoples had already lived here, cultivating the land, erecting majestic buildings, and creating wonderful works of art. But by the time the Spanish conquerors appeared in the country, not only these peoples themselves, but even the memory of them had almost completely faded away.

It is now well known that more than two thousand years ago, on the shores of Lake Texcoco and the lagoons of Xochimilco, Chalco, Xaltocan and Sumpango, there were a number of settlements of ancient farmers. Their inhabitants grew maize (corn) - it was the main source of food - as well as beans, cotton and other plants. The great American scientist L. Morgan spoke well about the importance of maize for Indian tribes in his classic work “Ancient Society”: “Maize, due to its suitability for consumption, both in green and in a ripe state, its high yield and nutritional value, turned out to be richer a gift of nature that contributed more to the initial progress of mankind than all other grains put together.”

Powerful streams of rainwater flowing down from the surrounding mountain ranges gradually deposited a thick layer of sediment on the shores of the lake and lagoons. They abounded mineral fertilizers. Mixing with coastal silt, rich in rotted plant debris, these sediments formed soil of exceptional fertility. On it, under the hot southern sun, rich harvests ripened, not inferior to the crops grown in the Nile Valley. Meat food was provided by hunting: there were many birds and small game on the banks overgrown with reeds, and even deer were found on the forested mountains.

America, unlike Europe and Asia, did not know farm animals - horses, cows, sheep, pigs. The exceptions are the domestic dog (found in Mexico) and the llama (found in Peru). This left an imprint on the entire course of development of the productive forces of the Indian tribes. The lack of domestic animals in the Mexican Highlands forced the Indians to intensively develop agriculture. Edible grains were grown using artificial irrigation. Since there was no draft power, all work was done manually. Therefore, it was not field cultivation, but gardening that was characteristic of agriculture in Central America for a number of centuries.

The tools of ancient farmers were only stone and wood. Deer bone and antlers were widely used for various crafts. The most common material for making tools was obsidian, which is so rich in the Valley of Mexico. Every piece of mineral found a use. It was used to make arrowheads, knife blades, sharp razors, and wide plates for scrapers. Another common material was solidified lava. Millstones and graters were made from this rough, porous substance to grind corn grains. Axes were made from hard stones - porphyry, jade. Making them required a lot of time and hard work, so they are rarely found during excavations.

The houses of the ancient agricultural population of Mexico did not survive. Apparently they were built from willow wattles covered with clay; the roof was covered with reeds. Of course, such buildings could not survive to our time. They quickly collapsed, leaving no traces.

Several decorations during excavations rough work made from shells have been carefully studied by scientists. It turned out that the shells from which these decorations were made are found only on the Pacific coast. Consequently, the primitive farmers of the Valley of Mexico participated in trade exchanges with distant southern regions. The tribes that lived on the Pacific coast brought them such shells.

The ancient Mexicans developed a cult of the goddess of fertility. We do not know what the goddess of fertility was called in ancient times, since we do not know a single word from the language of the most ancient inhabitants of Mexico. Archaeologists have also often found figurines depicting a seated old man with his head bowed. He has bowls on his head and back. Traces of soot and remains of resinous substances on their walls suggest that fragrant resins were burned in these bowls. This ancient deity did not lose its significance in subsequent centuries. The Aztecs knew him as the "old god." Sometimes he was called the "lord of fire." He personified the volcanic forces that manifest themselves so violently from time to time throughout Central America.

Religious ceremonies often took place not in temples, but in the open air. Near the modern town of Cuicuilco, next to the remains of an ancient settlement, archaeologists discovered a massive, oval shape mound made of mud bricks. The height of the mound reaches an impressive size - 18 meters. Its slopes are lined with large boulders. It was possible to climb to the flat top of the mound along a specially constructed wide slope. But there was no building there. At the top there was only an altar. On religious holidays, people gathered at the foot of the hill and watched the sacrifice, which was supposed to ensure a bountiful harvest.

It is unknown for what reasons these ancient settlements were abandoned by their inhabitants. It is possible that the actions of volcanic forces played a certain role in this. Excavations have established that several centuries before the beginning of our era there was a strong eruption of the neighboring Shitli volcano. Molten lava flooded a huge area. Flowering fields turned into a barren desert. Several abandoned villages were buried under a layer of hardened lava.

But one of them, located about 75 kilometers from the disaster site and protected from molten lava by Lake Texcoco, was not abandoned. In the traditions and legends of the Aztecs, the mysterious Toltec people are repeatedly mentioned. The Toltecs were the oldest population Mexican valley. They are credited with the discovery of the use of metals. They are considered the pioneers of architecture, sculpture and painting. And the word “Toltec” itself in the Aztec language means: “builder”, “architect”. To the Toltecs, as Aztec legends say, all other Mexican tribes owe the achievements of culture and art. They taught them to cultivate agricultural plants, build strong stone buildings, make textiles, and carve statues and reliefs.

Archaeological excavations in the Valley of Mexico have helped to establish that these legends contain vague echoes of genuine historical events. In the first centuries of our era, Teotihuacan - the name of the settlement that survived the lava flows of Shitli - began to develop rapidly. Its favorable location attracted new settlers from other parts of the Mexican plateau. It is customary in modern science to call the creators of this city by the name of the mysterious people of Aztec legends - the Toltecs. Indeed, the distinctive and high culture created by the people of Teotihuacan had a great influence on cultural development other ancient Mexican peoples. Archaeologists find traces of this influence throughout almost the entire territory of Central America.

In the III-VI centuries. the inhabitants of Teotihuacan united all the main settlements of Central Mexico. Significant changes had occurred in Toltec society by this time. As a result of property stratification, rich and poor appeared. The rich made the poor dependent on themselves and seized the main positions in the tribal union. During military clashes between tribes, prisoners were captured. They were distributed among the most distinguished warriors in battle. Captives were turned into slaves who worked for their masters. The fruits of their labor further enriched the nobility and increased the wealth gap between rich and poor.

In the 4th century. Teotihuacan has grown from a small settlement into The largest city. Its territory was 750 hectares. Most of the buildings in this city were built from stone blocks fastened together lime mortar. Other houses were built from adobes - sun-dried clay bricks. When the giant complex of buildings of the main city of the Toltecs was opened, scientists realized how rightly the ancient peoples of Mexico called the inhabitants of Teotihuacan “builders.”

The two most interesting monuments of Teotihuacan are the Pyramids of the Sun and the Moon. In fact, these are not pyramids, in the sense that we are accustomed to understand this word when talking about the giant tombs of the Egyptian pharaohs. The pyramids of Central America are giant stepped bases for temples that rise on their flat top. Only in rare cases were tribal leaders or high priests buried in the depths of the pyramid.

The Pyramid of the Moon towered 42 meters above the city. At its top there was a temple that has not survived to this day; it was obviously built of wood. Even more magnificent was the Pyramid of the Sun, whose height reached 65 meters. The Aztec chronicler said well about these two wonderful monuments: “They (the pyramids of the Sun and Moon) are like mountains, and it is impossible to believe if anyone said that they were made by human hands.” And now the Pyramid of the Sun makes an unforgettable impression. If you go around and measure the four sides of its base, you get an impressive figure - about 240 meters. The pyramid is divided by three terraces into four gradually smaller parts. This gigantic structure was built from millions of Adobes. Then the walls were lined with cut stone and covered with plaster.

The Toltecs were not only wonderful architects. The remains of fresco painting found in the buildings of Teotihuacan, the majestic three-meter statue of the goddess of water, discovered during excavations, speak eloquently of the high skill of Toltec sculptors and artists.

Fragmentary and unclear reports from later Aztec sources indicate that Teotihuacan was suddenly abandoned by its inhabitants in the mid-9th century. This was confirmed by archaeological excavations on the territory of the giant city. The reasons for the departure of city residents are still unknown. However, the large amount of burning found in one part of Teotihuacan makes us think of a terrible, devastating fire. This fire could have been the result of an attack on Teotihuacan by some hostile tribes or a large uprising. In any case, by the time of the Spanish conquest, the huge city had already been in ruins for many centuries. Random travelers who visited it from time to time, shocked by the power of these ruins, called it Teotihuacan, which in Aztec means “the habitat of the gods.”

It is very difficult to understand the events of the next three or four centuries, since there are very few historical documents dating back to that time. What is known is that semi-wild nomadic tribes invade the Valley of Mexico, and it becomes the scene of a fierce struggle. Most of these tribes spoke related languages. Modern researchers call this group of tribes Nahua, and their language, or set of languages, Nahuatl. Aztec also belongs to this group of languages.

The Nahua tribes invaded the Mexican Highlands to plunder the flourishing cities and villages of farmers. But, having captured the area, they usually stayed there and gradually switched to a sedentary lifestyle.

The Culua tribe was the first to appear in the Valley of Mexico. According to scientists, in the 11th century they conquered the Toltecs. But later the conquerors themselves became victims of stronger aliens - the Chichimecs, or “wild ones”. They were dressed in animal skins, and this gave rise to calling them the contemptuous name “wild”.

At first, after their appearance in the valley, the Chichimecs lived on the eastern shore of the Shaltokan lagoon. They were mainly engaged in hunting. Then the nomads moved to the western part of the valley and there they gradually learned farming and switched to a sedentary lifestyle. Another part of the Chichimecs settled in Texcoco, a small settlement on the eastern shore of the lake of the same name. In this area they encountered highly cultured tribes who came from the south of Mexico. The merger of these tribes and the Chichimecs into a single people - the Texcocans - gave a powerful impetus to the development of the city of Texcoco.

At the beginning of the 14th century, appeared on the arena of history new power- Tepanec tribe. Over the course of just a century, they managed to conquer all the settlements in the Valley of Mexico. So, after several centuries of invasions and struggles, the entire population of the valley again, as in the time of the Toltecs, found itself united under a single authority. The Tepanecs in their struggle for primacy in the valley were helped by a small tribe of Tenochki, who lived on the western shore of Lake Texcoco, near Chapultepec.

The Tenochki were the Aztecs. They called themselves by this name, and neighboring tribes called them Aztecs. Thus, the first mention of the rulers of the Valley of Mexico appears only in the 14th century. two hundred years before the Spanish conquest. And they are mentioned as some kind of insignificant, small tribe.

Each people in ancient times had legends about their origins and their folk heroes. The Aztecs also had legends about the origin of their people. They, for example, were aware that they were late newcomers to the Valley of Mexico. “In time immemorial, their legends say, the Aztecs lived somewhere very far from the valley, in western Mexico. They occupied an island located in the middle of the lake and were transported to the shore on light pirogues. This island was called Aztlan. From this word comes the name of the people - Aztecs (more correctly, Aztecs - “people from Aztlan”). In an ancient Aztec manuscript we see an image of this island with a pyramid in the center. In a mountain cave near the lake, the Aztecs suddenly discovered a statue of the god Huitzilopochtli. This wonderful statue, the legend says, had a prophetic gift and gave wise advice. Therefore, the Aztecs began to revere her. On the advice of Huitzilopochtli, they left Aztlan and set off to wander with eight other tribes: Chichimecs, Tepanecs, Culuas, Tlaxcalans and others.

Moving on a long and dangerous journey, the Aztecs took with them the statue of Huitzilopochtli and, using its advice, determined their route. They moved forward very slowly, sometimes staying for a year at each new place. Meanwhile, the advanced units continued to search for new, more convenient places and developed them, cultivated and sowed the fields. By the time the entire tribe arrived at the new site, the corn harvest was already ripening.

Further events in different sources presented differently. They name the most diverse geographical location areas where the tribes who left Astlang allegedly ended up during their wanderings. According to one version, they even reached the borders of Guatemala, but turned back. Then this entire group of tribes lived for a long time in an area called “Seven Caves.” Gradually, one after another, the tribes began to leave this area and move to the Valley of Mexico City. The Chichimecs were the first to leave, then the Tepanecs, Culuas, Chalks and others. Finally, Huitzilopochtli advised the Aztecs to go as well. Under the leadership of the leader Tenoccin, or Tenoch, they set out from the “Seven Caves” and after long wanderings reached the Mexican Highlands. By the name of their leader Tenoch, the Aztecs began to call themselves tenochs, that is, “people of Tenoch.”

Archaeological excavations and scientific research have shown that in these tales of the Aztecs, or tenochki, there are particles of historical truth. The Aztecs appeared in the Valley of Mexico later than all other Nahua tribes. Before this, they were a small nomadic tribe living near one of the lakes of Western Mexico. Their migration from there to the shores of Lake Texcoco is a historical fact. It is also true that most of the tribes mentioned in Aztec legends appeared in the valley before them. But the order of appearance of these tribes is confused, and the sites and a number of other details, of course, already belong to purely legendary tales.

Having arrived in new places, the tenochki settled on the western shore of Lake Texcoco in Chapultepec. Soon, however, due to the constant troubles that the tenochkas caused their neighbors, they united and attacked the restless newcomers. The defeat was complete. The leader and the majority of the tribe were taken to Culuacan territory and planted in Tizapan - a desert place inhabited, as Aztec chronicles say, only by poisonous snakes and insects. The city of Culuacan was nearby, and its ruler, Koshkosh, had every opportunity to observe the actions of the tenochki. A small part of the Aztecs managed to escape by boat across the lake. They took refuge on small low-lying islands. But after some time the Culuacans had to turn to their recently defeated opponents. Koshkosh started a war with the strong Xochimilk tribe, and he needed the help of the tenochki. During the decisive battle, an interesting episode occurred, described in detail in the Aztec chronicles. The Tenochki fought bravely with the Xochimilcas and captured more than thirty people. But before sending the prisoners to the rear, as was usually done, they cut off one ear from each of them. After the battle, the ruler of Culuacan praised his warriors. And Koshkosh spoke about the tenochka allies with undisguised contempt: they, they say, were unable to capture a single person. Having calmly listened to Koshkosh’s speech, which was offensive to them, the tenochki asked him: “Why do most prisoners lack one ear?” Having puzzled those gathered with this question, the Aztecs opened their bags and showed their battle “trophies” - cut off ears. Thus the truth was restored, and for the first time rumors about the brave and cruel Aztec warriors spread throughout the country.

Over the next century, this fame, along with the victorious weapons of the Aztecs, spread far beyond the valley. The peoples of almost all of Mexico feared and hated this formidable name. This was one of the main reasons for the victory of Cortes, who captured Mexico at the beginning of the 16th century.

The Aztecs, or Tenochki, never were good neighbors for the peoples around them. Very soon after their glorified victory over the Xochimilcas, they committed a serious offense towards Koshkosh. The angry ruler of Kulua ordered his warriors to kill all the tenochkas. Fleeing from defeat, they fled to the lake. After all, there, on the islands, were their relatives. On one of these small islands, not far from the first Aztec settlement - Tlatelolco, the refugees founded a new settlement - Tenochtitlan. According to the Aztec chronicles, this happened in 1325, that is, a little less than two hundred years before the Spaniards appeared in Mexico. Subsequently, both of these settlements merged into one large city. Or rather, Tlatelolco became a suburb of Tenochtitlan.

Its foundation was attributed by the Aztecs to the same legendary Tenoch. Hence the name Tenochtitlan - “city of Tenocha”. But there is another explanation in the chronicles. Having moved to the island, the shadows saw a large cactus on a coastal cliff, washed by the waves of the lake. A huge, wonderfully beautiful eagle with wide-open wings sat on it and gazed at the rising sun. A snake writhed in his claws. The Aztecs took the appearance of this eagle as a favorable omen sent down to them by the gods, and founded a city on this site. In memory of this event, it was named Tenochtitlan (from the words “tetl” - stone, rock and “nochtli” - cactus). It is not known which legend more accurately explains how the name of the greatest city in Mexico arose. In any case, the image of an eagle sitting on a cactus with a snake in its beak is state emblem of the modern Mexican Republic, and its highest order is called “Aguila Azteca”, that is, “Aztec Eagle”.

When the power of the Tepanecs increased in the Valley of Mexico, the Aztecs became dependent on them. They paid a large tribute and experienced all kinds of oppression, but, having entered into an alliance with other subject tribes, they overthrew the hated yoke. In 1429, the Tepanecs were completely defeated. And the inhabitants of Tenochtitlan turned from a subject tribe, subject to tribute, into free inhabitants of an independent city-state, a member of the Triple Alliance.

Initially social structure The Aztecs were exactly the same as those of all other Indian tribes of Central America. A group of families constituted a clan, united by a common origin (all members of the clan had one common ancestor). At the head of the clan was an elder who supervised all the affairs of his relatives. Twenty clans united into a tribe. Each clan was completely independent in its affairs, but issues that were important for the life of the tribe were decided by a tribal council consisting of elders of all clans. The tribe was led by two chiefs. One led military operations, the other was in charge of the internal affairs of the tribe and religious rituals. Both leaders were elected by the council from among its members and were responsible to it. The council could at any time remove one or the other leader, and even both, and appoint others in their place. This was the structure of the Aztec tribe at the time of its migration to the Mexican Highlands.

The alliance concluded to overthrow the Tepanec yoke between Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopa was at first an alliance of three weaker tribes against one strong one. Each of the tribes - members of this union - had equal rights. All joint actions were taken only by decision of the council of three rulers. Based on the size of the military forces put up by the participants in the union, it was agreed that all the spoils would be divided into five equal parts. The Aztecs and Texcocans were to receive two shares, and the inhabitants of Tlacopan one share.

After the victory over the Tepanecs, the situation began to change rapidly. The Triple Alliance became the most powerful force throughout Mexico. The Aztecs, who after the victory received a significant area on the lake shore, acquired a solid base for further offensive actions. The new lands captured after the defeat of the Tepanecs were distributed among the most outstanding warriors. The vanquished became their slaves.

Thanks to this, a fairly large stratum of rich and noble people formed among the Aztec tribe, eager for new conquests with the aim of even greater enrichment. Thus, among the Tenochki, as once among the Toltecs, classes appeared - slaves and slave owners. The presence of classes with an inexorable pattern entails the formation of a state. Tribal governing bodies became organs of the state. The power of the military leader increased unusually. He became the de facto ruler of the tribe, and the council played only a supporting role with him. Now the council can only advise, but not command. The power of the supreme leader begins to be inherited. The old electoral system is over forever. The second leader, who was in charge of civil affairs, fades into the background. Now he leads only religious ceremonies. By the time of the reign of the paramount leader Itzcoatl, who came to power in 1428, the process of transforming the Tenochki tribe into a primitive slave society had gone quite far. Obeying the wishes of the slave-owning elite, Itzcoatl started a war with the southern neighbors of the Aztecs - the powerful Xochimilcas and Chalkas - and achieved that they recognized his supreme power.

The new wealth that came to Tenochtitlan as a result of this war made it possible to significantly expand the city. Except big houses, built by rich warriors, the construction of temples was undertaken. Dams are being built to connect the island to the mainland. Thanks to them, communication between Tenochtitlan and the regions under its control became easy, fast and convenient.

The Aztecs considered their capital Tenochtitlan impregnable, and with good reason. The huge city was located among the vast Lake Texcoco on several islands. It was connected to the land by three long dams, stretching from north to south and from west to east for many kilometers. In case of danger, communication with land could be immediately terminated: dams in a number of places were interrupted by drawbridges. Removing the bridges meant isolating the capital from the outside world. Similar bridges connected some streets and quarters of the city. Each of them was like a fortress within a fortress, surrounded on all sides by water.

The brilliant victories of the Aztec warriors inspired them with a sense of superiority, immense pride and self-confidence. It became unpleasant to remember the old times, when the Tenochs were subordinate to the Kuluacans and Tepanecs. Therefore, by order of Itzcoatl, all historical manuscripts were burned, “since,” according to one Aztec historian, “the people did not value them.”

When Itzcoatl died in 1440, his son Montezuma I, nicknamed the Wrathful, became the ruler of the tenochki. Like his predecessor, Montezuma I waged constant war and further expanded the area of Tenochtitlan's dominance. During his reign, Aztec troops went beyond the Mexican Highlands and, crossing the mountains in the east, raided the sea coast.

Texcoco's troops energetically helped the Aztecs. There is no mention of the third member of the union - Tlacopan. Perhaps he retained his independence, but, of course, he no longer received anything from the spoils looted in the war. The Aztec capital, Tenochtitlai, continued to grow steadily. Montezuma I built an aqueduct that ran from the springs in Chapultepec to the city center. Tenochtitlan was now abundantly supplied with drinking water. To protect against floods that occurred during the winter rains, the eastern outskirts of the Aztec capital were fenced with a large embankment. A large number of slaves worked on its construction.

In 1451-1456. The Valley of Mexico suffered a great disaster. Severe storms and frosts constantly destroyed crops. The resulting severe famine exacerbated class contradictions in Aztec society. The poor, having no grain reserves, were forced to go into bondage to the rich. For a bag of corn, they gave themselves and their family members into debt slavery. The gap between the slave-owning elite of Tenochtitlan and ordinary representatives of the people widened even more.

Montezuma I's son, Axayacatl, who came to power in 1469, further expanded the dominance of the city of Tenocha over other cities in Mexico. The neighboring city of Tlatelolco, which until that time still retained its independence, was subordinated. It was famous for trade, and its market, even after Tlatelolco became actually a suburb of Tenochtitlan, remained the largest in Mexico.

Axayacatl tried to expand the Aztec possessions to the west. He undertook a military campaign against the Tarascans, who lived in the territory of the modern state of Michoacan. But here, for the first time in recent decades, the Aztecs were defeated. Thanks to this victory, the Tarascans remained independent until the Spanish conquered them.

Under Axayacatl, Tenochtitlan was decorated with a new wonderful monument. A huge calendar stone, more than three and a half meters in diameter, was placed on top of the large temple dedicated to Huitzilopochtli. On it, skillful Aztec sculptors depicted the entire previous history of the world, as they understood it, starting from the moment of its creation.

The Tenochki believed that since its creation the universe had gone through four epochs, or eras. The first, called “Four Ocelots,” lasted 4008 years and ended with the tribes of giants, the Kinametzins, who then inhabited the earth, being exterminated by ocelots. The second era - “Four Winds”, which lasted 4010 years, ended with terrible hurricanes and the transformation of people into monkeys. The next, third, era - “Four Rains” - also did not go well; at the end her world was engulfed in a destructive fire. Finally, the “Four Waters” - the fourth era, which took 5042 years, ended with a flood, during which people turned into fish. The era in which the Aztecs themselves lived was already the fifth in a row and was supposed to end with a terrible earthquake.

These performances reflected memories of natural disasters - floods, devastating hurricanes, terrible earthquakes, volcanic eruptions - that the inhabitants of Mexico suffered in ancient times. The entire history of the world was inscribed on the calendar stone. In the middle of the relief there was an image of the sun. There were concentric circles around the central part: first a belt of twenty names of days of the Aztec calendar, then a circle of the signs “turquoise” and “jade”, meaning the words “jewel” and “sky”. Beyond this belt extended the rays of the sun and the symbols of the stars, and the outer border was formed by two large fiery serpents, symbolizing time. This grandiose monument, weighing more than 20 tons, was carved in the quarry area. To drag it along the dams to Tenochtitlan and lift it to the temple pyramid, all the areas subject to the Aztecs sent their people. After the conquest of Mexico in 1521, the Spaniards threw the stone from the top of the pyramid, fearing that in its sight the Indians would again fall into paganism. This wonderful monument lay in the ground until the end of the 18th century, where it was accidentally discovered. Currently, he occupies one of the most honorable places in the National Historical Museum Mexico City.

The rulers of Tenochtitlan who followed Achayacatl - his brothers Tizoc (who ruled from 1479 to 1486) and Ahuitzotl (among the Aztecs, after the death of the ruler, he was usually succeeded not by a son, but by a brother or nephew) - continued the aggressive policy of their predecessors. Under them, the borders of the Aztec state expanded even further to the north and southeast.

Numerous campaigns of the troops of Tenochtitlan always ended in victories and the capture of new slaves. Thus, during one campaign in Northern Oaxaca, undertaken with the help of Texcoco, the Tenochs (Aztecs) captured more than twenty thousand prisoners. It is interesting to note that the role of spies in these wars was often played by itinerant traders traveling around the country. Using the right of immunity, they not only exchanged local objects for foreign ones, but also collected information about the forces at the disposal of the future enemy, and reported what tribute could be received from him. But Ahuitzotl had to undertake a campaign for another purpose: he had to constantly pacify the uprisings in the areas under his control. The Tlaxcalans and the inhabitants of Cholula did not want to submit to the dominance of the Tenochs.

During the reign of Ahuitzotl, the construction of a large temple, begun by his predecessors, was completed. A second aqueduct was also built, since the first one could no longer satisfy the water needs of the greatly increased population of Tepochitlan.

In 1503, the Aztec capital was the victim of a natural disaster. The flood destroyed part of the dam and a number of buildings. A mortal threat hangs over the city. The entire population of Tenochtitlan rushed to seal the holes in the dams. I even had to turn to the Texcocans for help. In the midst of rescue efforts, Ahuitzotl was seriously wounded in the head. The wound turned out to be fatal. He died soon after.

After his death, Axayacatl's son Montezuma II, nicknamed the Younger, came to power. His attempts to conquer Tlaxcala were unsuccessful. But the main concern of Montezuma II was no longer new campaigns of conquest. He sought to keep the tribes and peoples subject to the Aztecs in obedience. For this purpose, punitive expeditions and military campaigns were undertaken more than once.

When the ruler of Texcoco died in 1516, Montezuma II personally determined who should succeed him. He did not want to take into account the opinion of the Texcocans. As a result, an uprising broke out, and the alliance, which had long since lost power, was finally dissolved. This was the last important event in the “pre-Spanish” era. In 1517, the first expedition of Spanish conquistadors reached the shores of Mexico. Two years later, a detachment of Hernan Cortes landed on the shore, which during 1519-21. captured and destroyed the Aztec empire.

The basis of the Aztec economy was agriculture. Their agricultural technology was primitive. The main weapon was a wooden stick pointed at one end. Sometimes such sticks had a slight expansion at the sharp end, and thus slightly resembled our shovels. These sticks were used both for loosening the soil and for sowing, to make small holes into which grains were then thrown. In ancient Indian manuscripts we often see images of farmers with such a stick, engaged in sowing.

But under the hot sun of Mexico, even such a simple technique generously rewarded labor, if only the plants received enough moisture. Therefore, the Aztecs widely used artificial irrigation. The name of one of the lagoons of the Valley of Mexico - Chalco (translated into Russian as “many channels”) - directly indicates this.

An interesting and unique feature of Aztec agriculture was floating vegetable gardens, called “chinampas” in Mexican. Such vegetable gardens are still established today on the Chalco and Xochimilco lagoons. It was not easy to make chinampa in those days. Small, lightweight rafts made of wooden slats and woven reeds were covered with silt taken from the bottom of the lake. A small amount of soil was added to the sludge. In this fertile mixture, always moist due to contact with water, the plants developed especially quickly and luxuriantly. Several of these rafts, tied together, were tied to piles driven into the bottom of the lake. Tenochtitlan, located on a small island and therefore without much land, was surrounded by many floating vegetable gardens. They grew mainly various garden plants: tomatoes, beans, pumpkins, peppers, zucchini, sweet potatoes and all kinds of flowers. The Aztecs were very fond of growing flowers. It is not for nothing that the Xochimilco lagoon, which abounded in chinampas, means “flower gardens.”

The main crop, however, of the Aztecs, like all other Indian tribes of Central America, was corn, or maize. From the Aztecs or other tribes of America, Europeans learned cocoa, tobacco, tomatoes, sunflowers, various types of beans, potatoes, pumpkin, pineapple, vanilla, groundnuts, rubber trees, many medicinal plants, quinine, strychnine, cocaine, and finally, many beautiful ornamental plants : dahlias, begonias, fuchsias, prickly pears, calceolaria, various types of orchids. It is not for nothing that many of the names of these plants are taken from Indian languages, for example, “chocolate” or “tomato” - distorted Aztec words “chocolatl” and “tomatl”. None of the plants cultivated by the American Indians before the settlement of the American continent by whites was known either in Europe, or in Asia, or in Africa. The introduction and development of these crops more than doubled the food resources of the Old World. Aztec farmers also had at their disposal: chia, a plant whose grains were used to make oil and prepare a refreshing drink; yam - a plant with edible starchy tubers; Kamote is a plant from the bindweed family, the root of which is used as food. From areas with hotter and more humid climates, they imported cocoa beans, pineapples and vanilla. Agave was used in Aztec households mainly for its juice. A strong drink, octli, was prepared from it by fermentation. A glass of one hundred could knock a man off his feet. In addition, agave was used for other economic purposes: very strong ropes and coarse fabric for bags and for sewing clothes were made from its fibers. However, only the poor wore such clothes. The richer ones wore cotton clothes. On the plantations of the nopal cactus, the Aztecs diligently bred cochineal - small insect, which gave an excellent dye for dark crimson fabrics.

Among the Aztecs, men worked the land. At first, when Aztec society did not yet know classes, the tribal council distributed land between clans. Within the clan, the land was divided between families in proportion to the number of eaters. When the head of the family died, his sons worked the plot. If he had no offspring or did not sow his fields for two years, the plot was transferred to the new owner. Later, with the emergence of classes in Aztec society, the situation changed. Special plots began to be designated for the maintenance of the tribal ruler and priests. These lands were cultivated, of course, not by themselves, but by ordinary members of the tribe and, partly, by slaves. The rich and noble seized more fertile and extensive areas for themselves. The poor could not feed themselves and their families on the plots of land allotted to them and were forced to go into bondage to the rich.

The Aztecs are relatively late inhabitants of the Valley of Mexico. Many centuries before their appearance, cultural peoples had already lived here, cultivating the land, erecting majestic buildings, and creating wonderful works of art. By the time the Spanish conquerors appeared in the country, not only these peoples themselves, but even the memory of them had almost completely faded away.

The Aztecs are not a people, but a community of peoples who inhabited the Valley of Mexico until 1521. Among these tribes, the Tenochs were undoubtedly the main ones, and they are often called “Aztecs”. Also, by Aztecs they mean the triple alliance created:

tenochtitlna
Acolua Texcoco
Tepanecs of Tlacopan

The modern use of the word "Aztec" as a term encompassing peoples related by trade, custom, religion, and language was proposed by Alexander von Humboldt and adopted by 19th-century Mexican scholars as a means of distinguishing contemporary Mexicans from the indigenous Indian populations.

Aztec cities

Their city-states arose in the fertile valley of Mexico City and subjugated a vast territory, gaining access to unlimited natural resources.

The Aztec civilization (XIV-XVI centuries) had a rich mythology and cultural heritage. The capital of the Aztec Empire was the city of Tenochtitlan, located on Lake Texcoco (Spanish: Texcoco), where the city of Mexico is now located.

The Aztecs settled on two then small islands on Lake Texcoco and built the city of Tenochtitlan in 1325. Over time it became a large artificial island, now this place is the center of Mexico City.

The Aztec culture is associated with a cultural complex known as the Nahua because of its common language. According to legend, the various groups that would become the Aztecs came to the Anahuac Valley, around Lake Texcoco, from the north. The location of these valleys and lakes is known for sure - this is the heart of modern Mexico City, but it is not known for certain where the Aztec people come from. Legend has it that the ancestors of the Aztecs came from the north, from a place called Aztlan, and belonged to the last of the seven Nahuatlacs(“Nahuatl speakers”, from the word “tlaca” meaning “person”).

The Aztecs did not come out of nowhere. Gradually they adopted the knowledge and part of the culture of the tribes that had previously settled on these lands. According to legend, when the Aztecs arrived in the Anahuac Valley, the local population considered them the most uncivilized group, but the Aztecs decided to learn; and they took all the knowledge they could from other peoples, mostly from the ancient Toltecs.

Aztec ideas about the world order

The Aztecs adopted and combined some traditions with their own. Among them is the myth of the creation of the world, which describes four great eras, each of which ended in a universal catastrophe.

Our era - Nahui Ollin, the fifth era (Blavatsky also wrote about five), the fifth sun or fifth creation - escaped destruction thanks to the self-sacrifice of the god Nanahuatl, which means “all in wounds.” In Russian it is usually translated “all in buboes.” This is the smallest and most humble god, suffering from pain caused by a serious illness; he turned into the Sun.

This myth is associated with the ancient city of Teotihuacan (literally - “place of transformation into a god”), which was already abandoned and abandoned at the time when the Aztecs came to the valley of modern Mexico City.

Another myth describes the Earth as the creation of two twin gods - Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl. Tezcatlipoca lost his foot during the creation of the world, so he is depicted without a foot and with an exposed bone. In some varieties of the cult, Quetzalcoatl is also called the white Tezcatlipoca.

Aztec Empire

The Aztec Empire, like most European empires, was quite ethnically diverse. It was more of a unified tribute collection system than a unified management system. Although cities under Aztec rule were subject to heavy tribute, excavations show a steady increase in the wealth of the commoners after the subjugation of these cities. Trade was carried out even with enemy cities. The only people to defeat the Aztecs, the Purépecha, were the main producers of copper axes. The main administrative contribution of the Aztecs was the system of communications between conquered cities.

In Mesoamerica, there were no draft animals or wheeled vehicles, and roads were built for travel on foot. Usually the construction of roads was part of the tribute. The roads were constantly monitored so that even women could travel alone; travelers could rest, eat, and even visit the restroom every 10-15 kilometers. Also, messengers (Painani) constantly traveled along these routes, keeping the Aztecs informed of the latest events.

The creation of the Aztec empire led to one of the largest demographic explosions - the population of Mesoamerica increased from 10 to 15 million people and by the time of the Conquest, the Aztec state occupied the territory from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean, from the mouths of the Balsas and Panukodo rivers to the Mayan lands. Separate colonies existed on the lands of Guatemala. On the other hand, the city-state of Tlaxcala in the north of the Pueblo Valley did not submit to the Aztecs.

Main occupations of the Aztecs

The Aztecs were a warlike people, but they were engaged in agriculture, mined coal, silver, gold, mastered pottery and weapons crafts, processed metals and sewed clothes. Much attention was paid to the development of writing and science.

The achievements of the Aztecs in agriculture were manifested in the invention of “floating gardens” - the chinampa and the invention of the irrigation network. Farmers grew legumes, pumpkins, and spread throughout the conquered territories such a product as corn, which later became very important. We learned how to use cocoa grains to prepare a fragrant drink, and to use agave juice to prepare alcoholic drinks. They were the first to learn how to grow cocoa and tomatoes, giving them the name “tomato”.

The colonialists who arrived on their lands were delighted with the level of architectural projects and buildings. Floating villages, houses built on stilts, majestic temples, monumental buildings with luxurious roof gardens. Settlements supplied with running water with developed urban infrastructure. Hairdressers, pharmacies, inns, taverns - all this was present in the settlement and spoke of a high level of development of civilization.

Based on their writing, the Aztecs created a mature literature, mainly represented by religious and historical prose. Epic stories told about the origins of the Indians, the wanderings of their ancestors, wars and floods.

Aztec architecture

The main elements of Aztec architecture were pyramidal temples up to 70 meters. The height of these buildings was dictated by religious requirements. Temples certainly had to be larger in size than any other buildings. A striking example of such a structure is the Temple of Inscriptions in Palenque, all the walls of which are covered with inscriptions. Also known are the Temples of the Sun, the Cross and the Foliated Cross.

The beautiful palace ensembles and structures, unfortunately, were destroyed by the conquistadors. But even in our time, we can appreciate the scale and professionalism of the ancient architects - the Aztecs, thanks to the Temple in Malinalco, carved directly into the rock and discovered at the end of the twentieth century in the center of Mexico City - the main Temple - Templo Mayor.

Using an example we can see the unique work of builders, and character traits Aztec art in the form of products of sculptors and artists. But not only temple and palace complexes were built by the Aztecs. Their skill made it possible to create bridges, fortresses, canals, and aqueducts. The most beautiful city, undoubtedly, was “growing on stones, among cacti” - the city of Tenochtitlan - the capital of the Aztecs.

The culture of this amazing people reached its highest period of development at the beginning of the 16th century, but the actions of the colonial invaders destroyed the possibilities for its further development.

After the capture by the Spaniards, the Aztec civilization practically ceased to exist, cities and temples were destroyed, and books were burned... This is how the conquiscodores expressed their admiration for what they saw. What else could you expect - Europeans have been living by robbery for many centuries, and even at first they associated it with the Great Martyr Christ. Whoever he was, but Crusades he didn’t teach how to arrange...

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