Elementary rules of English grammar. English grammar: basic concepts

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

State educational institution

higher professional education

"Perm State Pedagogical University"

Department of Foreign Languages

SHORT COURSE IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Teaching aid

for students correspondence department

2nd edition, revised and enlarged

BBK Sh 143.21-923

R e c e n s e n t:

Senior Lecturer, Department of Foreign Languages, Linguistics and

intercultural communication of the Perm State

T. E. Rylova Technical University

Authors-compilers: art. teacher cafe foreign languages N.P. Zonina,

Art. teacher cafe foreign languages N.V. Karpenko

K 78 A short course in grammar in English: textbook-method. allowance for students of the correspondence department / ed.-comp. N.P. Zonina, N.V. Karpenko; Perm. state ped. un-t. - 2nd ed., Rev. and additional - Perm, 2008. - 80 p.

The publication highlights the main grammatical phenomena of modern English, the knowledge of which is necessary for correct writing, conversation and understanding of texts in English. The theoretical material is offered in Russian, English equivalents are given to the names of grammatical terms. Examples from original fiction and grammars of well-known English publishers are used.

The sequence of presentation of the material comes from the experience of working with students of the correspondence department and is based on the principle "from simple to complex". At the same time, the presentation of the material allows you to study some topics independently of others, so the sequence of their study can be changed based on the needs of teaching.

Designed for undergraduate students.

BBK Sh 143.21-923

Printed by decision of the educational and methodological council

Perm State Pedagogical University

Pedagogical University", 2008

Foreword

Currently, there are more than two thousand different languages and dialects on the globe. In some cases, it is a language spoken by only a few thousand people. In other cases, the language is served by a huge number of speakers. These languages include Russian, Chinese, English, Spanish, French and Arabic.

English is spoken in all parts of the world. It is the native language of the majority of the population of Great Britain, Australia, New Zealand, the United States of America, Canada. rich and varied fiction in English.

Learning English is very relevant today. In most countries of the world, English is widely used in diplomacy, in the preparation of business and commercial documents. He is one of five official languages United Nations, along with French, Spanish, Russian and Chinese.

Every seventh person in the world either knows or is studying English. Studying foreign language is mandatory in every higher educational institution and is based on two main aspects - teaching vocabulary and grammar. We bring to your attention short course grammar of the English language and we hope that it will help either to learn anew, or to systematize existing knowledge of grammar.

1. Noun (thenoun)

A noun is a part of speech that denotes an object and answers the question "who is this?" or "what is it?"

Nouns in English are divided into countable and uncountable. Countable nouns denote objects that can be counted: achair - a chair, alawyer - a lawyer, aquestion - a question. Uncountable nouns are the names of substances and abstract concepts that cannot be counted: water - water, milk - milk, freedom - freedom, friendship - friendship, etc. Countable nouns are used in the singular and plural. Uncountable nouns do not have a plural.

Some nouns in English are used only in the singular: advice - advice, advice; knowledge - knowledge; news - news, news; money - money.

Some nouns in English are used only in the plural: spectacles - glasses, trousers - trousers, scissors - scissors, goods - goods, goods, clothes - clothes, wages - salary.

1.1 Plural nouns (thePlural)

A noun in English has a singular (thesingular form) and a plural. Most nouns in English form plural by adding the ending “–s” to the singular form. The ending “-es” is added if:

singular noun ends in

hissing or hissing sound (-s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -tch, -x):

a bus - buses, a lunch - lunches, a class - classes, a watch - watches, a bush - bushes, a box - boxes;

Singular noun ends in "-"

with the previous consonant; in this case, “- y” changes to “- i”:

a story - stories, a fly - flies.

Note. If there is a vowel before “-y”, then the ending “-s” is added along general rule: boy - boys, day - days;

a singular noun ends in “–o”:

a hero - heroes, a tomato - tomatoes.

Exceptions: a piano - pianos, a photo - photos, a disco - discos.

a singular noun ends in “–f”

or “–fe”, with “f” changed to “v”:

a wife - wives, a shelf - shelves, a wolf - wolves, a knife - knives, a life - lives.

Exceptions: a roof - roofs, a chief - chiefs, a safe - safes.

Ending “–s(es)” pronounced :

[s] - after voiceless consonants:

a lamp - lamps, a lake - lakes

[z] - after vowels and voiced consonants, except:

a train - trains, a sea - seas

After hissing and whistling sounds:

a place - places ["pleisiz], a rose - roses ["rouziz], a wish - wishes ["wiSiz],

a bench - benches ["bentSiz], a page - pages ["peidZiz].

Special cases of plural formation of nouns

The plural of some nouns is formed

changing the root vowel (without adding an ending): a man - men, a woman ["wumqn] - women ["wimin], a foot - feet, a tooth - teeth,

a goose - geese, a mouse - mice.

The plural noun child ["tSaild] has the form

children ["Cildrqn], noun ox -oxen.

Nouns sheep - sheep, deer - deer, fish - fish

have the same form in singular and plural.

Some nouns of Latin and Greek origin

retain the plural forms they had in these languages:

a datum – data, a phenomenon – phenomena, a crisis – crises, a radius – radii.

For complex nouns, the plural form takes

main noun only: a daughter-in-law – daughters-in-law,

a school-mate - school-mates, a passer-by - passers-by.

1.2 Cases of nouns

Unlike Russian, where there are six cases of a noun, there are only two in English: common (theCommonCase) and possessive (thePossessiveCase).

The common case has no special case endings. The connection of a noun in the common case with other words is expressed by prepositions, and is also determined by the place of the noun in the sentence.

A noun in the common case with the preposition “to” or “for” can correspond to a Russian noun in the dative case:

I gave the ticket to my sister. - I gave the ticket to my sister.

Didn't buy a ball for his son. - He bought a ball.

The combination of a noun in the common case with the preposition “of” mostly corresponds to the Russian genitive case:

the answers of the students - student responses.

The common case of a noun with the prepositions “by” and “with” often expresses such relations between words, which in Russian are conveyed by the instrumental case:

America was discovered by Columbus. America was discovered by Columbus.

The letter was written with and red pencil. The letter was written in red pencil.

1.3 Possessive Case

Possessive answers the question whose? (whose?, whose?, whose?, whose?).

The possessive case of the singular is formed by adding an apostrophe (') to the noun and the ending “-s”, which pronounced :

[s] - after voiceless consonants:

Kate's toy - Katya's toy,

[z] - after vowels and voiced consonants:

UncleTom's Cabin - Uncle Tom's cabin,

- after hissing and whistling sounds:

Alice's ["xlisiz] adventures - Alice's adventures.

If a singular noun ends in “-s, -ss,

X,” then in a letter to possessive predominantly only an apostrophe is added, although the usual notation "-'s" is also possible; in both cases, the ending is pronounced:

James' (or James's) coat - James's coat,

Dickens' (or Dickens's) life - Dickens' life.

If the plural noun ends in

“-s”, then in the possessive case only an apostrophe is added to it, and no changes occur in pronunciation:

myparents' car is my parents' car.

If the plural noun does not end in

“-s”, then its possessive case is formed in the same way as in the singular, that is, by adding “-'s”: children'sshoes - children's shoes.

A noun in the possessive case, as a rule, stands before another noun and serves as a definition for it. In Russian it translated genitive case of a noun or possessive adjective: children'snotebook - children's notebook, children's notebook.

In the possessive are used mostly nouns that denote the names of living beings:

a girl's name - the name of the girl, the horse's tail - the tail of the horse.

In addition, in the possessive case are used :

a) nouns that denote time and distance:

threeweeks' holiday - a three-week vacation, amile'sdistance - a distance of one mile;

Imagine that you need to start something completely new for you right now. For example, get behind the wheel of a car, bake pies for the first time, bathe a newborn in a bath. What will you start with? Options:

1. I'll take it and do it, what's the problem.
2. I read first on the Internet or in books how this is done.
3. Call a friend experienced in this matter.
4. Help from the hall (I will ask another).
5. Learn from a professional.
6. I won't do it.

The option you choose characterizes you very clearly. If we are talking about English grammar, then depending on which method you prefer above, the following is expected:

1. Bugaga (the teachers and the English laugh, who heard you speak in English).
2. Adding patience and time to this, you yourself will learn all the rules.
3. Add to this the patience of a friend and his time, you will learn all the rules under his guidance.
4. You will not learn anything, but you will listen to how others do it.
5. Adding money to this, you will learn all the rules.
6. You can go skiing, meet friends in a cafe, sleep, eat - in general, life is good.

As you can see, in order to understand English grammar, you need, in theory, only three things: a source of rules, time and patience. The first one is offered to you in these articles, but you will have to cope with the other two components on your own.

Thus, we give you a fishing rod, and you will catch the fish yourself. What is the beauty of our fishing rod? It is lightweight, comfortable and easy to use. We will not load you with terrible grammar terms, torment you with long lists, flickering arrows, A4 spreadsheets and other tricks that some English teachers scare.

There is nothing particularly difficult in English grammar, unlike many other European languages (not to mention Oriental and African). You can simply read these articles like a fiction book. Even if you master the minimum, at the finish line you will find that you own most of the rules that previously seemed unbearable.

As an example, let's do something already in the introductory part. What does speech consist of? From phrases. What is a phrase? From suggestions. What does the offer consist of? Stop! Let's clarify: what does the ENGLISH sentence consist of? Subject and predicate. Usually this is a noun and a verb (just don't say that you don't remember these words anymore): the dog is running, the passerby is screaming, the dog is barking, the owner is yelling. True, a noun can be successfully replaced by a pronoun: she runs, you scream, she barks, I yell.

You have just listened to a roundup lecture on parts of speech. What do you remember? At least the words "noun" and "verb" for you are already associated with grammar, and not cooking or construction work. And more is not needed. Are you ready to continue in the same rhythm?

Follow me (follow me).

Parts of speech:

1. Numerals(The Numeral)
1.1 Cardinal and ordinal numbers
2. Pronouns(The Pronoun)
2.1 Personal and possessive pronouns
2.2 Demonstrative and negative pronouns
2.3 Indefinite and reflexive pronouns

5. Adjective(The Adjective)
5.1 Comparisons of adjectives

7. Noun(The noun)
7.1 Noun in English. Noun classification

8. Verb(The verb)
8.1 Verbs in English. General information about verbs
8.2 Regular and irregular English verbs
8.3 Semantic and auxiliary verbs
8.4 Modal and linking verbs

In recent years, the study of English has become so popular that some are sometimes even surprised that someone does not know it. This is not surprising, since English can be considered the most “international”, it is spoken in almost all countries of the world (of course, in addition to the native language). Those who wish for further career prospects, strive to learn it in the very first place, and only then can, if desired, begin to study other languages. Of course, this is not easy, because the rules of the English language, its grammar, are strikingly different from those inherent in mother tongue person. And, in addition to them, you need to learn a lot of foreign words in order to be able to express yourself in such a way that you are understood. But, let's say that you have already begun to study a long time ago, and you need a list of the most common mistakes made when speaking or writing a text. We suggest taking into account the basic rules of the English language, in which mistakes are most often made.

Verbs Present Simple (present indefinite tense): they are used when it comes to any action (I do - I do) that takes place at all. For example: I drive a bus - I drive a bus. That is, this action does not necessarily occur at this moment, it occurs in general, constantly. Remember that such verbs are used in a "pure" form only in relation to the pronouns I, we, you, they (I, we, you, they). With the pronouns he, she, it (he, she, it), the ending -s- is added to the verbs, for example: Henry works in a bank - Henry works in a bank.
The rules of the English language state that the auxiliary verb will (not translated in this case), which serves to form the future tense, is not used with words such as while, when, after, before, as soon as, till, until - while time as, when, after, before, as soon as, while, until then.
to and must, despite the similarity of meaning, still differ in meaning. Thus, I have to do it means "I must / have to do this", and I must to do it should be understood as "I must do this."
Studying further the rules of the English language, please note that verbs with the ending -ing- are used before at, in, of, with, for, instead of, about, in spite of (in, in, from, with, to, a, approximately , despite) and after after, before (after, before). For example: are you interested in reading of this book - are you interested in reading this book?

In addition, it is necessary to remember about the correct construction of sentences. We are used to the fact that the Russian language is so great and powerful that it allows an arbitrary permutation of words among themselves, and the meaning of the sentence will not change from this and will be clear. In English, everything is different: if you rearrange it as you like, you get nothing more than an ordinary set of words that have no connection. It is for this reason that it is important to learn the rules of the English language, in which there are nine types of sentences, each of which is built according to its own laws. The classification of species is as follows:

1) narrative (subject - simple predicate - other parts of speech);

2) interrogative (built based on the expected answer: general issues, to which it is quite possible to answer “yes, no”; special, requiring only a complete answer; choice questions; separating, consisting of a sentence and the question itself);

3) imperative (the only one that does not have a subject);

4) exclamatory (they are identical in structure to narrative ones, but with greater expression and intonation);

5) negative (have only one negation);

6) answers to questions (are built depending on question asked);

7) (nominal and verbal, for example: it is cold - cold, or it's getting warm - it becomes warm);

8) indefinitely personal (one can do it easily);

9) complex sentences(consisting of several independent sentences).

Of course, all this is just brief basics English, because the rules, in fact, are much more. But nothing is impossible, as you know, nothing happens. Therefore, if the desire to learn English is very strong, in addition to the rules, do not forget that you need to communicate in this language. The fact is that, having learned a language only on paper, you will hardly be able to understand it in colloquial speech with no practice. If there is no one to communicate in English with, the solution is simple: watch films without translation and try to catch intonations, pronunciation features of words and other nuances. So you will quickly begin to think, and, consequently, speak English as freely as possible.

English grammar for beginners seems to be something unbearable. Articles, pronouns, verbs - the English language has a huge number of rules that are not so easy to transfer to Russian. This raises doubts, but is it worth starting at all? Is it worth it to dive into English grammar without a certain certainty that you can master it? No, with such an attitude, you definitely won’t be able to sail far in the study. Therefore, it is important to discard all doubts and stereotypes. Believe me, English grammar can be learned on your own and in the shortest possible time. All that is required of you is constancy and perseverance, and we will help you with everything else.

First, let's figure out what the grammar of this language is. The English grammar or English grammar is a set of all rules that relate to prepositions, prefixes, parts of speech, types of English verbs and their tenses, sentence members, and so on.

In simple words, everything that is in the English language is its grammar. Respectively, frequently asked question how to learn grammar , has a very simple answer: to learn English grammar, you just need to learn the language. Of course, it will not be possible to analyze all the nuances in one article. Why, even books in which they promise to show you the entire grammar of the English language from scratch with exercises, in fact, they will never tell you about all the grammar. Therefore, we have collected only the most basic rules that are best suited for beginners.

How can you learn English grammar without even knowing the rules of pronunciation. Let's start with them. The rules for reading letters in English is a rather extensive topic, since with a certain combination their pronunciation may change. However, let's not go too deep and consider the standard pronunciation of letters, which, by the way, are 26 in English. When mastering the topic of pronunciation Special attention transcription is given, which is usually indicated in square brackets:

№	Letter	Transcription	Pronunciation
1	A a		Hey
2	Bb		bi
3	c c		si
4	D d		di
5	e e		And
6	F f		ef
7	G g		ji
8	H h		h
9	I i		ah
10	Jj		jay
11	K k		kay
12	l l		email
13	M m		Em
14	N n	[ɛn]	en
15	O o	[əʊ]	OU
16	Pp		pi
17	Q q		cue
18	R r	[ɑː]	A
19	S s		es
20	T t		ti
21	U u		Yu
22	Vv		in and
23	Ww	[‘dʌbljuː]	double
24	X x		the ex
25	Y y		wye
26	Zz		zed

English Grammar: Articles

When studying English grammar, there can be a lot of confusion with, since they have no analogues in Russian. Articles are usually used with nouns to show whether the reference is to a specific object (that bag) or an indefinite one ((some) person). In total, there are 3 types of articles:

Zero article or its absence:

The indefinite article a / an, which is used when you are not paying attention to a specific thing, but simply talking about the subject as a whole. The indefinite article is also used when you first mention something to someone:

Note that if the noun or adjective that describes it begins with a consonant, the article "a" is used, and if with a vowel, "an".

The definite article the, expressing specific objects:

In speech, they are constantly encountered, so be sure to remember.

Nouns in English Grammar

English grammar from scratch very often starts with nouns. Perhaps this is because English nouns have a lot in common with Russian ones. For example:

they are also divided into own and common nouns:

can change in numbers, forming the plural with the ending -s (-es):

have cases, although their number is limited to only two:

perform the roles of all members of the proposal, examples:

The difference lies in the fact that, unlike the Russian language, English nouns do not change by gender. Only pronouns have it.

English Grammar: Pronouns

Pronouns in English are divided into 9 subgroups, but the most popular are rightfully personal pronouns. They change in cases, tenses and numbers:

English Grammar: Verbs

The verb in English is perhaps the most important part of speech. It can be personal or impersonal. Personal verbs include those verbs that are used with all persons and at all times. They can be used in both active and passive voices:

Impersonal include gerund, infinitive and participle:

Both regular and irregular verbs have 3 forms. The correct ones are formed as follows:

Incorrect ones have 3 individual forms that need to be memorized, for example:

It is necessary to know all these forms, since with the help of them the formation of tense verb forms takes place.

In addition, verbs have three moods:

Particular attention should be paid to modal verbs. Modal verbs are verbs that are not used on their own. They are necessary to show the attitude of the speaker to some action. Some of the most used modal verbs are:

should (should)	You should stop drinking alcohol. (You need to stop drinking.)
can (can)	Every person can achieve everything he dreams about. (Everyone can achieve anything they dream of.)
must (should)	The pupils must wear uniforms here. (Here, students are required to wear a uniform.)
have to (must / have to)	I have to wake up early because of work. (I have to get up early because of work.)
need (need)	I need you like no one else. (I need you like no one else.)
used to (before)	I used to watch this cartoon when I was a child. ((Before) I watched this cartoon when I was a kid.)

English Grammar: Adjectives

An adjective in English denotes a sign of an object and answers the questions “what?” and "whose?". In simple terms, it is used to describe objects and persons. According to their structure, adjectives are divided into 3 groups:

These and other adjectives can be used in 3 degrees of comparison:

English Grammar: Adverbs

The descriptive function is also characteristic of adverbs, which are responsible for the expression of the sign of action. It is of several types:

They can also have degrees of comparison:

English grammar: numerals

Numerals, as in Russian, are quantitative and ordinal:

Except for the first 3 digits, the rest of the ordinal numbers are formed with -th (-eth). In English ordinal numbers can be written using a number and the last two letters of the ending: second - 2nd, ninth - 9th, sixteenth - 16th and so on.

English Grammar: Interjections

It is impossible not to note the independent part of speech, the use of which helps to convey emotions and feelings, namely interjections. They can be divided into 3 groups:

Service parts of speech

The service parts of speech of English grammar are used quite often. Let's consider some of them:

Unions connect the members of the proposal, as well as simple sentences within the complex. By structure, they are divided into:

According to their functions, they are divided into coordinating and subordinating:

Prepositions are used at least as often as conjunctions. According to their structure, they are divided into exactly the same groups:

In addition to their main purpose, prepositions are always used with the following verbs:

Particles are another service part of speech. There are 5 types of particles in English:

English grammar: word order in a sentence

Sentences in English are affirmative, negative and interrogative. They are built as follows:

According to these tables, offers are made at any time.

English Grammar: Tenses

There are 12 temporary forms in English. They are formed using 3 tenses and 4 temporary types:

Times / Species	Simple (Simple)	Continuous (long)	Perfect (perfect)	Perfect Continuous (Perfect Continuous)
Past (past)	V2	to be (past) + V-ing	had + V3	had + been + v-ing
Present (present)	V1	to be (in the present) + V-ing	have / has + V3	have / has + been + v-ing
Future (future)	will + V1	will be + v-ing	will + have + V3	will + have + been + v-ing

Knowing these forms, you can form any sentences.

English grammar: types of sentences

By the way, about the proposals. As in Russian, English sentences are divided into simple and complex. Complex ones are subdivided into compound and complex.

It is worth noting that, despite the fact that most sentences in English are complete, it is permissible to use and incomplete sentences. As a rule, this option is used in colloquial speech, so this is rather a practical grammar of the English language:

These were the basic rules of grammar. Of course, it is impossible to fit all the material here, alas. However, knowing at least the mentioned rules of the English language, you will already feel quite confident during the conversation. As for conversations. A collection of English exercises or another version of descriptive information is, of course, good. However, believe me, the practical grammar of the English language is incomparable in its effectiveness. By communicating, language learners can learn much more than by sitting at a book. Therefore, do not hesitate to communicate with native speakers.

Hello friends. English grammar, provided with numerous examples to help you learn it better. All grammar rules presented in very understandable language. Both beginners to learn English and those who continue will find a lot for themselves here. useful information. English grammar will be much easier for you.

English grammar. Grammar Reference

Verbs and tenses

And:

You need to know these rules!

So, dear readers, now you will get acquainted with the basic rules of English from different sections of the language. They concern grammar, speech, syntax and much more.

Rule #1

After modal verbs particle to not used. We are speaking:

Imust learn Englishmodalverbs. - I have to learn English modal verbs.
You should listen to your parents. - You should listen to your parents.
May I take yournotebooktillSunday? - Can I borrow your laptop until Sunday?

Rule #2

You cannot use certain indefinite article with pronoun:

I love my mother. - II loveminemom.
Where is your friend now? - WhereNowis yoursFriend?
Yesterday I met Tom and his wife. - Yesterday I met Tom and his wife.

Rule #3

Adverbs of the English language (to the question "how?") are formed according to the scheme: adjective + ending ly:

perfect - perfect ly- great, great, great
Quick - quick ly- fast, agile
Rapid-rapid ly- fast
Quiet-quiet ly- quiet
nice - nice ly- cute
Easy - easy ly- easily
Beautiful - beautiful ly- Beautiful

Rule #4

Use presentSimple, after unions if,assoonas,before,when,till,until,after,incase in sentences of time and conditions relating to the future:

When I finish school, I will go to my grandparents in the countryside. - WhenIfinishschool, II will goTominegrandfatherAndgrandmotherVvillage.
After you study your family tree, you will find out where you descend from. - AfterTogo, HowYoustudygenealogicaltreeyourfamilies, Youfind out, fromwhomYougoing on.
Your elder brother will certainly help you if you ask- Is yoursseniorBrotherNecessarilywill helpyou, IfYouhisask.

Rule #5

Word order in English sentence is:

Subject + predicate + direct object + indirect object + circumstance

Subject + predicate + direct object + indirect object + adverbal modifier

Isentyoualetterlastweek. - I sent you a letter last week.
I saw Mike in the club. - IsawT-shirtVclub.
It was sunny yesterday. - Yesterdaywassunny.

In a Russian sentence, liberties are allowed, and there is no certain word order in it, everything depends on the emotion invested in it. In the English sentence, everything is clear and strict.

Rule #6

Phrasal verbs (verb + preposition) of the English language have their own separate meaning and their own translation. For example:

To look- look; to look for- search

To put- put, put; to put on- put on

Rule #7

The most general rule for the definite and indefinite articles of the English language: the indefinite article is placed where nothing is known about the subject; The definite article is used when something is known about a subject.

I see a The girl walking down the street is very beautiful. - Iseegirl. The girl walking down the street is very beautiful.

Rule #8

Ending — ed characteristic of past tenses only regular verbs. Irregular verbs have their own form for each past tense. For example:

look-looked BUT! Bring-brought-brought

Rule #9

There are 4 types of questions in English:

We go to the theater every Saturday. - Wewe goVtheatereverySaturday.

General(general): Do we go to the theater every Saturday? -Wewe goVtheatereverySaturday?
Special(special): Where do we go every Saturday? -WhereWewe goeverySaturday?
Alternative(alternative): Do we go to the theater every Saturday or every Sunday? -Wewe goVtheatereverySaturdayoreachSunday?
Disjunctive(separating): We go to the theater every Saturday, don't we? -Wewe goVtheatereverySaturday, NotSowhether?

Rule #10

To make an impersonal sentence, you need a pronoun It:

It is cold today. - TodayCold.
It is morning. - Morning.
It is difficult to translate this text. - Thistextdifficulttranslate.

rule № 11

After unions asif,asthough(as if, as if, as if, as if) in the conditional mood, verb tobe in the 3rd person singular takes the form were:

She speaks so proudlyas if she wasn't guilty. She speaks so proudly, as if it were not her fault.
Tom looks as thought he was rich. - VolumelooksSoas ifHerich.

Rule #12

Conditional incentive sentences in the 1st and 3rd person are formed using the word Let:

Let I have a look at these pictures. - Let me take a look at these photos.
Let him sleep, he is tired. - Giveto himsleep, Hetired.

Rule #13

Everyone knows what the word many is used with countable nouns, and the word much- with uncountable. But, if suddenly, you find it difficult, doubt, forget the rule or do not understand what noun is in front of you, feel free to use a combination of words alotof. It applies to both kinds of nouns.

Many birds- a lot of birds
Much sugar- a lot of sugar

Rule No.14

A bunch of English words- polysemic, that is, they can have several meanings. It depends on the context and meaning of the sentence. To better understand the translation, you should refer to the dictionary and clarify the context in which the word is used.

Toshoot- shoot on video; toshoot- fire
Country- a country; country- village, village

Rule #15

Verb do can replace the main verb in a sentence. For example:

Kate doesn't like to clean her room, but I do. - KateNotlovestake awaymyroom, AII love.
Amanda likes to get presents, but I don't. - Amanda likes to receive gifts, but I don't.
Steve often ignores his duties, but his sister doesn't. - Steveoftenneglectstheirduties, AhissisterNo.

So we got to the fifteenth rule. Of course, this is not all. Each section of the English language has its own characteristics, and, therefore, its own laws. We have only covered the most basic ones. We hope they will be useful to you in learning the language.