Almost all European countries different stages their development tried to increase their power and prosperity by conquering and managing colonies. The greatest successes in conquering and developing new lands were achieved by Spain, Portugal and England. Competing with them: the Netherlands, France and Germany. Even countries such as Denmark and Sweden owned their own colonies.

The reasons that moved people to equip colonial expeditions were: trade, search for gold and other minerals, search for places to live, neutralization of pirate states, building a prestigious image.

The colonial empire of France arose gradually; it would be more correct to distinguish two long historical stages:

• First colonial empire(XVI-XVIII centuries) was built mainly by large royal trading companies, such as the French trading West India Company. During her conquests, the country acquired a large part of North America, the Caribbean islands and a large part of India, a significant part of which passed to England in 1763.
• The Second Colonial Empire (late 19th century) was built primarily to challenge the power of the British Empire, and lasted until the 1960s. It included the lands of North Africa, a substantial piece of West and Central Africa, Indochina and a significant number of islands around the world.

At the peak of its conquests, the empire reached a total area of ​​12.3 million square kilometers, 25 times the area of ​​the state itself. In terms of its scale, it was second only to the capabilities of Great Britain, which added 30 million square kilometers of colonized lands.

Colonies of France on the world map

Beginning of expansion

At the initial stage, which originated in the first third of the sixteenth century, there was a military annexation of territories, which was quite obviously beneficial from a political and economic point of view, which is an indisputable historical fact, without being a real priority for the development of the country.

The early travels of the Italian-born Giovanni da Verrazano, who served in France, led to the discovery of new lands. With his light hand, his places of residence were declared the property of the crown. The discoverer Jacques Cartier made three voyages along North America at the beginning of the 16th century, marking the beginning of its exploration by France.

Fishermen enjoyed visiting the Grand Bank off Newfoundland throughout the century, marking the beginning of the history of colonial expansion in North America. In 1534, the first French colonists settled in Canada. Fishing and the search for precious metals inspired the new arrivals. Spain's zealous defense of "its" American monopoly and internal religious war at the end of the 16th century prevented proper sustained efforts to gain a foothold in the region. There were early French attempts to establish colonies in Brazil in 1555, in São Luis in 1612 and in Florida, but these too were thwarted by Portuguese and Spanish vigilance.

First colonial empire of France

The history of the empire began in 1605 with the founding of Port Royal in modern Nova Scotia, Canada. Three years later, traveler Samuel Champlain founded the French settlement of Quebec, which was to become the capital of New France, a region rich in furs. By forming beneficial alliances with various Native American tribes, the French were free to rule most of the North American continent. For the time being, areas of French settlement were limited to the valley of the St. Lawrence River. And before the creation of the Sovereign Council in 1663, the territory of New France had the status of a trading colony. But the right to govern it was transferred to the British under the Utrecht Peace Treaty of 1713.

In the seventeenth century, commercial ambitions lead to conquest in the Caribbean region. The empire was replenished with Martinique, Guadeloupe and Santo Domingo. Implemented extraction system maximum efficiency of the occupied lands in this case was based on the slave trade and slave labor in the field of plantation cultivation sugar cane and tobacco. During the same period, colonists settled Senegal, Africa and Reunion in the Indian Ocean and established some dominance in India.

In parallel with the expansion of the empire in North America the conquest of the West Indies was carried out. Settlement of the area along the South American coast, in what is now French Guiana, began in 1624, and the colony of St. Kitts was founded in 1627. Before the peace agreement with the British, the island was divided, and after that it was completely ceded.

The Insular American Company founded colonies in Guadeloupe and Martinique in 1635, and subsequently in Saint-Lucie in 1650. The plantations were developed with the help of slaves brought from Africa. Resistance from indigenous peoples led to bloody ethnic cleansing in 1660.

The French presence abroad was not convincing, and in February 1763 the Treaty of Paris, which marked the end of the Anglo-French War, forced the country to abandon its claims to Canada and its presence in Senegal.

The most profitable expansion of the Caribbean colonies occurred in 1664, with the creation of Saint-Domingue, today's Haiti. The settlement was founded on the western edge of the Spanish island of Hispaniola. By the 18th century, Haiti had become the most profitable sugar plantation in the Caribbean. The eastern half of Hispaniola was administered by the country for a short period, but was ceded to Spain after the Haitian Revolution.

Conquests were not limited to acquisitions in the New World. In 1624, the first trading posts appeared in West Africa in Senegal.

In 1664, a company was created that competed for primacy in trade in the east. Controlled lands appeared in: Chandannagar in 1673, Pondicherry, Yanaon, Mahe, Karaikal. The acquisitions formed the basis of French India. The territory of present-day Reunion in the Indian Ocean, modern Mauritius and the Seychelles in 1756 were also not ignored. Under Napoleon, Egypt was also conquered for a short period, but rule there extended only to the immediate vicinity of the Nile.

In 1699 territorial claims in North America expanded even more due to the founding of Louisiana in the Mississippi River basin. A wide trade network throughout the region, linked to Canada through the Great Lakes, was supported by a network of defensive fortifications centered in Illinois and what is now Arkansas.

During a series of conflicts between France and England, a significant part of the conquered empire was lost.

Second colonial wave (1830-1870)

The second French colonial epic debuted with an attack on Algeria. Under Napoleon III, bold attacks on Mexico were carried out. Napoleon controlled southern Vietnam, Cambodia and Saigon. The authorities annexed a number of Pacific islands, such as Tahiti and New Caledonia. They tried to establish themselves in Asia.

After Franco-Prussian War the country grew with Indochina. Using the newly annexed lands of Vietnam, Tonkin and Annam were captured in 1883, Laos and Kwan Zhou Van. The country became the second most powerful colonial power, after England.

In the mid-19th century, a concession was established in Shanghai, which existed there until 1946, and a protectorate in Tunisia by the end of the century. At the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, with enormous efforts and 16 years of struggle, Mauritania became a colony. The crown was replenished with Senegal, Guinea, Mali, Cote d'Ivoire, Benin, Niger, Chad, Congo and Morocco.

The last successful colonization interventions occurred at the end of the First World War.

Colonial Administration

There were two ways to regulate colonies: assimilation or association. On the one hand, with assimilation, the administration in Paris dictates the laws to which the controlled lands must obey, on the other hand, the path of unification is a more flexible system. The path of association leaves the authorities, but residents do not become full citizens of the country. Despite the variety of administrative systems, the French government claims its sovereignty. Dominance is reflected at the economic level. The indigenous population is characterized by a lack of voting rights, special taxation and a lack of basic freedoms. Among other things, the European colonial structure conflicts with local culture and customs. The educational system used in the controlled territories is an effective means of instilling a European way of thinking.

Colonial Exhibition in Paris 1931

The international exposition, which opened on May 6, 1931 in Paris, can be considered a symbol of the country’s prestige and glory in the field of conquering the world. The laying of the first stone took place on November 5, 1928; construction took place over more than two years on an area of ​​110 hectares located around Lake Daumesnil in the east of the capital in the green forest of Vincennes. The main entrance was decorated with a golden gate, which is still preserved. The Colonial Exhibition represented all the colonies and countries under the French protectorate. For each corner of the world conquered by the country, a special pavilion was provided. Catholic and Protestant churches were represented by mission flags. About 200 buildings were occupied by large companies, restaurants and snack bars, and exotic food stores. The exhibition was complemented by a colonial museum, a tropical aquarium and a zoo. The area was decorated with majestic illuminated fountains. To move around the park, a railway was built, five and a half kilometers long, along which six stations were built. It was also possible to travel by electric vehicles. For the entertainment of visitors, 16 boats were purchased, many rowing boats and 30 boats for water attractions on the lake. The park hosted various festivals and exhibitions, among which the “Day of Colonial Tourism” occupied a special place.

The exhibition was a huge success: more than 8 million visitors, some of whom came again. The Colonial Museum taught visitors about the various stages of colonial conquest. 5 months after the opening, funding began to be cut, so the zoo, the museum of the colonies and the pagoda have survived and are popular to this day.

French colonies today

Colonization was a fairly unpopular measure, and was largely considered a waste of money and military effort. At the beginning of the twentieth century, right-wing parties opposed decolonization because they considered it too costly, and the left wing did not support its position, seeing peace, freedom and civilization in abandoning this policy. At the end of the colonial empire, the left wing advocated decolonization, while the right resisted until the civil war of 1960-1961.

Having come to power in 1936, the Popular Front lobbied for reforms designed to increase the independence of the colonies. The economic crisis of the 1930s and the Second World War led to the end of the era of conquest.

During the Brazzaville Conference in January 1944, countries worked together to develop an administrative system that would provide greater opportunities for self-determination for indigenous peoples. The first victory that marks the failure of colonial France is the declaration of independence of Lebanon and Syria in 1941, which came into force in 1943.

Having failed to organize a painless decolonization process in the middle of the last century, France experienced a difficult situation, especially in Algeria, where the war of independence lasted from 1954 to 1962 and almost ended civil war in France. Colonial France begins to collapse and the National Liberation Front is born, which sparks an armed uprising in Algeria. The war in Algeria was responsible for the birth of the Fifth Republic. The agreement in 1962 marked the end of the war and Algerian independence.

By the beginning of 1960, almost all former French colonies had become independent countries. Several territories remain part of France. Residents of former colonies, especially Algeria, demanded the privileged right to become citizens of the country.

Decolonization is happening in other countries as well. Tunisia became independent in 1956, African countries between 1960 and 1963. Gradually, other foreign territories also changed their status.

Belonging to the former empire became a matter of geopolitics and national pride. The older generation lives with the thought that they were lucky to live in a country that was the second largest empire and brought civilization and democracy to the peoples of nine percent of the world's surface. Decolonization, organized under the leadership of Charles de Gaulle, was approved by the majority, despite the trauma caused by the Algerian War.

Most people who obtain French citizenship today come from former colonies.

There have been two empires in the history of France. The first existed in 1804-1814 and 1815. It was created by the famous commander Napoleon Bonaparte. After his overthrow and exile in France, the monarchical system constantly alternated with the republican one. Period 1852-1870 considered to be the period of the Second Empire, when Napoleon I's nephew Napoleon III ruled.

Emperor of the French

The creator of the First Empire, Napoleon Bonaparte, established a new state on May 18, 1804. According to the revolutionary calendar, it was the 28th of Floreal. On that day, the Senate adopted a new Constitution, according to which Napoleon was officially proclaimed emperor. Some attributes of the old monarchy were restored (for example, the rank of marshal in the army).

The French empire was governed not only by the first person of the state, but also by the imperial council, which included several senior dignitaries (these were the archchancellor, the supreme elector, the archtreasurer, grand admiral and the Grand Constable). As before, Napoleon tried to make his individual decisions legitimate through popular vote. At the first plebiscite in the empire, for example, it was decided to return the coronation ceremony. She was returned despite the resistance of the State Council.

Third coalition

The First French Empire created by Napoleon from the very beginning of its existence opposed the entire Old World. Conservative European powers opposed the ideas that Bonaparte carried. For the monarchs, he was the heir to the revolution and a man who represented a danger to their existence. In 1805, according to the Treaty of St. Petersburg Union, the Third Union was formed. It included Great Britain, Russia, Austria, Sweden and the Kingdom of Naples.

This agreement united almost all European nations. A powerful conglomerate of opponents opposed the French Empire. At the same time, Paris managed to persuade Prussia to maintain its much-desired neutrality. Then another large-scale war began. Napoleon was the first to punish the Kingdom of Naples, whose monarch he made his brother Joseph.

New successes of the empire

In 1806, the First French Empire achieved the creation of German states vassal to Bonaparte: kingdoms, duchies and principalities. On their territory, Napoleon initiated reforms. He dreamed of establishing a new order throughout Europe according to his famous Code.

So, after the victory over the Third Coalition, the French Empire began to systematically increase its influence in disunited Germany. This turn of events did not please Prussia, which naturally considered its native country to be its area of ​​responsibility. In Berlin, Bonaparte was given an ultimatum, according to which Paris was required to remove its army beyond the Rhine. Napoleon ignored this attack.

A new war has begun. And the French Empire won again. In the first battle near Saalfeld, the Prussians suffered a terrible defeat. As a result of the campaign, Napoleon triumphantly entered Berlin and secured the payment of a huge indemnity. The French Empire did not stop even after Russia intervened in the conflict. Soon the second most important city in Prussia, Koenigsberg, was taken. Bonaparte achieved the creation of a dependent Kingdom of Westphalia in Germany. In addition, Prussia lost its territories between the Elbe and the Rhine. Thus, the French Empire under Napoleon experienced the heyday of its territorial expansion in Europe.

Triumph and defeat of the Corsican

By 1812, the flag of the French Empire was flying over many European cities. Prussia and Austria were catastrophically weakened, Great Britain was under blockade. Under these conditions, Napoleon began his eastern campaign by attacking Russia.

The emperor considered three options as the route of advance of the Great Army: St. Petersburg, Moscow or Kyiv. Ultimately, Napoleon chose the Mother See. After the bloody Battle of Borodino with an uncertain outcome, the French army entered Moscow. However, the capture of the city gave nothing to the interventionists. The weakened army of the French and their allies had to retreat to their homeland.

Following the failure of the eastern campaign, the European powers united in a new coalition. This time luck turned against Napoleon. He suffered several serious defeats and was eventually removed from power. First he was sent into exile to Elba. However, after some time, in 1815, the restless Bonaparte returned to his homeland. After another 100 days of rule and an attempt to take revenge, his star finally set. The great commander spent the rest of his days on the First Empire was replaced by

New Empire

On December 2, 1852, the Second French Empire was formed. It appeared almost 40 years after the fall of its predecessor. The continuity of the two government systems was obvious. The Second French Empire received a monarch in the person of Louis Napoleon, the nephew of Napoleon I, who took the name Napoleon III.

Like his uncle, the new monarch initially used democratic institutions as his support. In 1852 it appeared according to the results of a national plebiscite. At the same time, Louis Napoleon, before becoming emperor, in 1848-1852. served as President of the Second Republic.

Controversial Monarch

At the first stage of his reign as monarch, Napoleon III was in fact an absolute autocrat. He determined the composition of the Senate and the State Council, appointed ministers and officials up to mayors. Only the Legislative Corps was elected, but the elections were full of contradictions and obstacles for candidates independent from the government. In addition, in 1858, an oath of allegiance to the emperor became mandatory for all deputies. All this eliminated the legal opposition from political life.

The style of government of the two Napoleons was somewhat different. The first came to power in the wake of the Great Revolution. He defended the new order that was then established. Under Napoleon, the former influence of the feudal lords was destroyed and the flourishing of the petty bourgeoisie began. His nephew defended the interests of big capital. At the same time, Napoleon III was a supporter of the principle of free trade. Under him, the Paris Bourse reached an unprecedented economic peak.

Worsening relations with Prussia

By the end of the reign of Napoleon III, France was experiencing a political decline caused by the inconsistent policies of the first person. Many sections of society were dissatisfied with the monarch, although for the time being these contradictions were reduced to nothing. However, the final nail in the coffin of the empire was the foreign policy of Napoleon III.

The Emperor, contrary to all the persuasion of his advisers, agreed to aggravate relations with Prussia. This kingdom has gained unprecedented economic and military potential. The proximity of the two countries was complicated by disputes over the border region of Alsace and Lorraine. Each state considered them their own. The conflict grew against the backdrop of an unresolved problem. Until recently, Austria and Prussia equally laid claim to the role of the leading force in this country, but the Prussians won this head-to-head struggle and were now preparing to proclaim their own empire.

End of the Empire

Not all of the above were true reasons for the war between neighbors. historical reasons. It turned out to be a dispute over the Spanish heir to the throne. Although Napoleon III could have given up, he did not stop, hoping to demonstrate his power both to his own citizens and to the rest of the world. But contrary to his expectations, from the first days of the war, which began on July 19, 1870, the French suffered defeat after defeat. The initiative passed to the Germans, and they launched an offensive towards Paris.

The Battle of Sedan ended with a fatal collapse. After the defeat, Napoleon III had to surrender along with his army. The war continued, but the government in Paris decided not to wait for the monarch's return and announced his deposition. On September 4, 1870, a republic was proclaimed in France. She ended the war with the Germans. Released from captivity, but deprived of power, Napoleon III emigrated to Great Britain. There he died on January 9, 1873, becoming the last French monarch in history.

Napoleon Bonaparte was constantly on his feet. He lived according to an inhuman schedule. From this lifestyle, the commander developed the habit of sleeping in fits and starts, for 1-2 hours, between times. The story that happened in the midst of the battle, Napoleon ordered a bear skin to be spread next to him, became anecdotal. The emperor slept on it for 20 minutes, after which, as if nothing had happened, he continued to lead the battle.

Napoleon I and Adolf Hitler gained power at the age of 44. In addition, both declared war on Russia at age 52 and were completely defeated at age 56.

Common term " Latin America"was introduced into use by Emperor Napoleon III. The monarch believed that his country had legal rights to this region. The epithet “Latin” was supposed to emphasize the fact that the majority of the local population speaks Romance languages, to which French belongs.

When he was President of the Second Republic, Louis Napoleon was the only bachelor to hold this position in the history of the country. He married his wife Eugenia, having already become emperor. The crowned couple loved ice skating (it was Napoleon and Eugenia who popularized ice dancing).

France entered the era of colonial conquests much later than Portugal and Spain. Travels of French navigators to Africa, North and South America at the end of the 16th - first third of the 17th centuries. were not accompanied by the establishment of control over the newly discovered lands. It was only in the 1530s that King Francis I (1515–1547) decided to embark on an active colonial policy. In 1534, an expedition was organized to the shores of Canada, but an attempt to begin its colonization in 1542–1544 ended in failure. Attempts by the French Huguenots to gain a foothold on the coasts of Brazil (1555–1560) and Florida (1562) also failed. The Religious Wars (1562–1598) halted French overseas expansion for almost half a century.

After their completion, the French at the beginning of the 17th century. returned to plans to colonize Canada. On July 27, 1605, on the shores of the Bay of Fundy, they founded Fort Royal (the colony of Acadia), marking the beginning of their colonial empire; On July 3, 1608, the fortress of Quebec (Colony of New France) was built at the mouth of the St. Lawrence. France's overseas policy intensified under Cardinal Richelieu (1624–1642), who acted through his patronized trading companies: the French in 1624 established a settlement on the northeastern coast of South America (Guiana); in the West Indies they occupied part of the island of St. Christopher in 1627, and in 1635 the islands of Martinique, Guadeloupe and Dominica; in Africa in 1638 they created the settlement of Saint-Louis at the mouth of the river. Senegal, in 1642 they built Fort-Dauphine on the southern tip of the island. Madagascar and landed on the island. Reunion (Bourbon) in the Indian Ocean; an attempt was also made to gain a foothold on west coast India (in Surat). After the death of Richelieu, France continued its expansion in the Caribbean: in 1643–1650 Fr. Saint Lucia, in 1648 - the island of Saint Barthelemy and part of the island of Saint Martin, in 1650 - the island. Grenada; in 1653 active colonization of Guiana began, in 1659 - the western coast of the island. Haiti (Hispaniola).

Colonial policy acquired even greater scope under Louis XIV (1661–1715), primarily thanks to the efforts of the controller of finances, J.-B. Colbert. The French intensified their penetration into the Hindustan Peninsula: they created trading posts on the western (Surat; 1668) and eastern coasts of India (Masulipatam; 1669), in Bengal (Chandernagore; 1673); in 1674 they began construction of the Pondicherry fortress on the Coromandel Coast, which became the capital of their Indian possessions. France continued to strengthen its position in the Indian Ocean, North America, the West Indies and West Africa: in 1664–1671 the colonization of Reunion began; in 1664 the colony of Saint-Domingue arose in Haiti; in 1697 Spain recognized the western part of the island as French possession; in 1682, the power of Louis XIV was proclaimed over the Mississippi River basin (Louisiana), which began to be actively developed in 1699; in Canada by the end of the 17th century. The French established control over the valley of the St. River. Lawrence and Great Lakes region; in 1697–1723 their possessions in Senegal expanded significantly.

The first serious test for France's colonial policy was the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1713), as a result of which it had to cede to England part of Canada (Acadia, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland Island) and Fr. Saint Christopher. In the 1710s, the French lost their trading posts in Surat and Masulipatam. True, in 1715 they managed to occupy Fr. Mauritius (Ile-de-France).

A new surge of colonial expansion dates back to the second quarter of the 18th century. Its main target was India: in 1723 the French acquired Yanaon at the mouth of the river. Godavari, in 1725 - Mahe on the Malabar coast, in 1739 - Karikal on the Coromandel coast. In the second half of the 1740s, they launched an offensive in the Eastern Deccan: by 1751, the principalities of the Carnatic and Hyderabad were under their control. The Seychelles Islands were acquired in the Indian Ocean in 1756. But as a result of the unsuccessful Seven Years' War (1756–1763), France lost most of its overseas lands to Great Britain: all possessions in India (except Chandernagore, Pondicherry, Mahe, Yanaon and Karikal), Canada, Fr. Cape Breton, Louisiana, a number of islands in the West Indies (Dominica, St. Vincent, Grenada, Tobago) and almost all of Senegal.

France was able to somewhat restore its colonial position in the 1780s and 1790s: thanks to the American Revolutionary War, it returned about. Tobago and the Senegalese coast (Treaty of Versailles 1783); during the era of the Directory and Consulate, Spain ceded the eastern part of Haiti (1795) and Western Louisiana (1800). However, an attempt to establish itself in Egypt in 1798–1801 failed. A black uprising in Haiti led to the expulsion of the French from the island in 1803. That same year, Louisiana was sold to the United States. After the fall of the Napoleonic Empire in 1814, France lost strategically important islands in the West Indies (Saint Lucia, Tobago) and the Indian Ocean (Seychelles, Mauritius). By 1815, it retained only part of the coast of Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, the tiny islands of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon off the coast of Canada, the mouth of Senegal, Reunion and five cities in India.

France resumed colonial expansion only at the very end of the Restoration era (1815–1830), beginning the conquest of Algeria in June-July 1830. The government of Louis Philippe (1830–1848) in the 1830s almost completely abandoned active colonial policy, but in the 1840s changed its course: in 1840–1845 a protectorate was established over a number of islands of Eastern Polynesia (Marquesas Islands, eastern part Society Islands and the western part of the Tuamotu archipelago), in 1841 the subjugation of the Comoros Islands in the Indian Ocean began, and by 1847 the conquest of Algeria was completed. During the Second Empire (1852–1870), colonial policy intensified sharply: in 1853 the French captured the island. New Caledonia; in 1855–1867 they significantly expanded their holdings in Senegal; in 1858–1862 they conquered Eastern Cochin China (South Vietnam); in 1861 they occupied several regions of Northern Sahara; in 1862 they occupied the port of Obock on the African coast of the Bab el-Mandeb Strait; in 1863 they established a protectorate over Cambodia (officially recognized by Siam (Thailand) in 1867); Western Cochin was annexed in 1867. French penetration intensified into Egypt (concession for the construction of the Suez Canal in 1854), the Middle East (military expedition to Syria in 1860), China (broad trading privileges under the Beijing Convention of October 25, 1860) and Central America (unsuccessful attempt in 1862– 1867 create the Mexican Empire led by the French protege Maximilian Habsburg).

After the establishment of the Third Republic (1875), France in the 1880s - early 20th century. took an active part in the colonial division of the world. The main objects of her interests were Africa, the Far East and Oceania. IN North Africa, although the French lost the fight for Egypt to the British (1882), they established a protectorate over Tunisia in 1881–1882, captured the Mzab region in the north of the Sahara in 1882, a number of southern Moroccan oases in 1899–1900, and in 1912 imposed a protectorate on the Moroccan Sultanate .

In West Africa, developing an attack on the Niger basin in the eastern (from Senegal) and northern (from the Guinea coast) directions, they captured the Upper and Middle Niger valley in 1883–1898, Dahomey in 1892–1894, and the lands between Senegal and the Ivory Coast (French Guinea), in 1898–1904 - the area north of Senegal (Auker, El Jouf), in 1898–1911 - vast territories to the east (Aire, Tenere) and north of Niger (Azawad, Iforas). Most of Western Sudan, covering an area of ​​4.7 million square meters, came under French control. km. In 1895, the colonies of Senegal, Guinea, Sudan and Ivory Coast were united into French West Africa; in 1899 Dahomey became part of it, and in 1904 Mauritania.

IN Central Africa, moving east from the mouth of the river. Ogoué (northwestern Gabon), the French in 1880 established a protectorate over the Congo Valley from Brazzaville to the confluence of the Ubangi, and in 1883–1885 subjugated the entire right bank of the Congo (French Congo). Developing expansion to the north, in 1890–1891 they reached the lake. Chad and by 1894 took control of the area between the Ubangi and Shari rivers (the colony of Upper Ubangi). By agreement with Great Britain on March 21, 1899, the Wadai region between Chad and Darfur fell into the French sphere of influence. In 1899–1900, the French captured the regions of Bargimi (lower Shari) and Kanem (east of Lake Chad), and in 1900–1913 they moved even further north to the Tibesti highlands, subjugating Borka, Bodele and Tibba (the northern part of modern Chad). In 1910, the colonies of Gabon, Middle Congo and Ubangi-Shari-Chad formed French Equatorial Africa, which occupied a vast territory from the river. Congo to the Sahara (2.5 million sq. km).

In East Africa, the French significantly expanded their small colony of Obock at the exit of the Bab el-Mandeb Strait (French Somalia) in 1882–1888. At the same time, their attempt to establish themselves in the Upper Nile Valley ended in failure (Fashoda conflict with Great Britain 1898).

In the late 1870s and early 1880s, France headed for the seizure of islands off the east coast of Africa: in 1886–1909 it subjugated the Comoros archipelago, in 1892 it established itself on the Glorieuse Islands in the Mozambique Channel, and in 1895 it captured Madagascar.

On Far East Indochina became the main target of French expansion. As a result of the Franco-Chinese War of 1883–1885, the French established a protectorate over Northern and Central Vietnam (Tonkin, Annam). In 1887, Cochin China, Cambodia, Annam and Tonkin formed French Indochina. In 1893, it included Laos and the entire left bank of the Mekong, ceded to France by Siam (Treaty of Bangkok October 3, 1893). In 1907, Siam also transferred to her the provinces of Battambang and Siem Reap to the west of the lake. Tonle Sap (modern Western Kampuchea).

France joined the great power struggle for control of China. In April 1898, she obtained from the Chinese government the transfer to her of a 99-year lease of Guangzhouwan Bay in the northeast of the Leizhou Peninsula and the recognition of the provinces of Yunnan, Guangxi and the southern part of Guangdong bordering French Indochina as its sphere of influence.

In a swimming pool Pacific Ocean France concentrated its efforts on conquering Polynesia and Southern Melanesia. In 1880-1889, it subjugated the eastern Polynesian islands of Tahiti, Tubuai, Gambier, the eastern part of the Tuamotu archipelago and the western part of the Society Islands, and in 1886 it established itself on the western Polynesian islands of Wallis and Futuna. In 1906 a joint Franco-British condominium was established over the southern Melanesian islands of the New Hebrides.

By 1914, the French colonial empire was second in size only to Great Britain: its territory was 10,634 thousand square meters. km; more than 58 million people lived there. After the victory in World War I, having received a mandate to govern the former German colonies of Cameroon and Togo (Treaty of Versailles 1919) and Syria and Lebanon, formerly under Turkish rule (Treaty of Sèvres 1920), France increased the area of ​​the Empire by 625 thousand square meters. km with a population of 5.5 million people.

Structure and system of government of the French colonial empire.

French overseas possessions (France d'outre-mer) were divided into two categories: 1) protectorates and mandated territories, which were under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs; 2) colonies, administered by the Ministry of Colonies; Algeria had a special status - it was considered integral part France and was subordinate to the Ministry of the Interior. The chief official in the protectorate and in the mandated territory was the Resident General or High Commissioner, who was in charge of foreign relations and defense and controlled the native administration; legal cases of the indigenous population were considered by native courts, French jurisdiction extended only to foreigners. In the colony, all power belonged to the governor; an advisory body of French officials and local nobility functioned under him; here both Europeans and natives were tried according to French laws. Under the Ministry of Colonies there was a Supreme Colonial Council, which included governors and one representative from each territory, and the Inspectorate of Colonies. The old overseas possessions (Guadeloupe, Martinique, Guiana, Algeria, Senegal, Reunion, five cities in India, Cochin) had representation in the National Assembly (Parliament) of France - 19 deputies and 7 senators.

There were two types of colonies: “settler”, which were the object of active European colonization (Algeria, Madagascar, New Caledonia), and “exploited”, which served primarily as suppliers natural resources(French West Africa, French Equatorial Africa). The French had a monopoly on entrepreneurial activity and trade in the colonies, without allowing any foreign competition. If before the First World War they had little interest economic development their overseas possessions, then after it they began their intensive development, the peak of which was the 1930s. Steps were taken towards the economic assimilation of the colonies with France. In 1928, part of the overseas territories received the right to tax-free import of goods into the metropolis, and the other part received significant customs benefits. A large-scale expansion of French capital into the colonies unfolded (up to 75% of the total export of capital). Economic infrastructure was created ( railways, highways, telegraph communications, public utilities), industrial enterprises were built; a health care system, a system of primary, secondary and even higher education appeared (some specialists received training in France). At the same time, the economy of the colonies, oriented towards the needs of the metropolis, was often monocultural in nature. There was significant inequality in the wages of Europeans and the local population and a huge gap between their standards of living.

In the 1920s and 1930s, individual reforms were carried out in a number of French possessions. In 1919 and 1937, certain groups of the Algerian population gained the right to receive French citizenship. Self-government was somewhat expanded in Tunisia (1922), French West Africa (1925), Indochina (1928), Syria and Lebanon (1930). In 1936, the Popular Front government entered into an agreement with the local authorities of Syria and Lebanon to abolish the mandate by 1939, but it was not implemented. Unlike Great Britain, France sought to limit as much as possible the participation of the indigenous population in the management of overseas territories.

Collapse of the French colonial empire.

Already in the 1920s and 1930s, a rise in the national movement was evident in a number of French possessions, primarily in the Mediterranean countries and Indochina. The defeat of France in 1940 led to a significant decline in its authority in the colonies. In the face of the threat from Japan, the Vichy regime was forced to agree to the occupation of Indochina by Japanese troops while maintaining the French colonial administration. Under these conditions, the leadership of the Free French, led by Charles de Gaulle, decided to pursue a more flexible course in relation to the overseas territories. In the fall of 1941, it promised to grant independence to Syria and Lebanon after the war. But in November 1943 Lebanon, and in January 1944 Syria, without waiting for the end of the war, announced the abolition of the French mandate. In January-February 1944, at the Brazzaville Conference of Governors of African Colonies, a course was taken to reform the colonial empire. The first post-war constitution, adopted in October 1946, proclaimed the creation of an equal community of the metropolis and its overseas possessions - the French Union; it included overseas departments (Algeria, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Guiana, Reunion), overseas territories (French West Africa, French Equatorial Africa, French Somalia, Madagascar, almost all possessions in Oceania, five cities in India, the Saint-Pierre Islands and Miquelon), acceded states (Morocco, Tunisia, Indochina) and trust territories (Togo, Cameroon, New Hebrides). The Union was headed by the President of France, The Supreme Council with advisory functions, consisting of representatives of the mother country and dependent territories, and an Assembly (parliament), half of whose members were elected from France, and the other half from its possessions; the latter's representation in the National Assembly was also expanded. France pledged to assist dependent peoples in achieving political independence. Nevertheless, in the localities, almost all power continued to remain in the hands of governors.

The reform failed to stop the collapse of the colonial empire. In August 1945, Vietnam, and in October 1945, Laos announced the elimination of French rule. In February 1946, France was forced to return Guangzhouwan to China, in April 1946 to recognize the independence of Syria, and in December 1946 - of Lebanon. Her attempt to restore her power in Indochina during the bloody Indochina War of 1946–1954 suffered a complete collapse, and in the summer of 1954 at the Geneva Conference she had to recognize the political independence of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. In the early 1950s, France lost its Indian possessions: in May 1950 it transferred Chandernagore to Indian control (officially in 1952), in November 1954 - Pondicherry, Mahe, Yanaon and Karikal (officially in 1962). The French government tried with all its might to hold Algeria, but in 1954 a war of independence broke out there (1954–1962). The rise of the liberation movement in Tunisia and Morocco forced the metropolis in March-April 1956 to abandon its protectorate over these countries. In June 1956, the National Assembly granted the overseas territories broad internal self-government, but the crisis of the French colonial system continued to deepen.

The coming to power of Charles de Gaulle in May-June 1958 led to a radical change in France's colonial policy. In order to maintain the influence of the metropolis in the countries of the French Union, it was transformed into the French Community, whose members received the right to independently determine their political status - to remain a dependent territory or become a member state of the Community with full internal autonomy, but delegating issues of defense, finance and external relations to the metropolis . The latter option was chosen by the overwhelming majority of French possessions in Africa at the end of 1958. Only Guinea refused to join the Community and achieved independence on October 2, 1958, which contributed to the strengthening of centrifugal tendencies. In 1960, the process of gaining state sovereignty in French Africa took on an avalanche-like character: on January 1, Cameroon gained independence, on April 27 - Togo, on June 20 - the Federation of Mali, which soon broke up into Senegal and Mali, on June 26 - Madagascar, on August 1 - Dahomey (modern Benin). ), August 3 - Niger, August 5 - Upper Volta (modern Burkina Faso), August 7 - Ivory Coast (modern Cote d'Ivoire), August 11 - Chad, August 13 - Central African Republic, August 15 - Congo, August 17 - Gabon, November 26 - Mauritania. With the recognition of the political independence of Algeria in March 1962 (Evian agreements), the French colonial empire practically ceased to exist. In July 1975, the Comoros Islands (except Mayotte) ended with dependent status, in June 1977 – French Afar and Issa territory (formerly French Somalia; modern Djibouti); in July 1980, the Franco-British condominium over the New Hebrides (modern Vanuatu) was abolished.

To date, France retains only a tiny part of its former overseas empire (just over 1% of its area): Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Guiana, Reunion, Mayotte, New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Wallis and Futuna, the Pacific island of Clipperton and several uninhabited islands in the southern Indian Ocean.

Ivan Krivushin

Literature:

Cherkasov P.P. The fate of the empire. M., 1983
Kerov V.L. French colonization of the Indian Ocean islands: XVII–XVIII centuries. M., 1990
Glushchenko E.A. Empire builders. Portraits of colonial figures. M., 2003
Parker L.K. French colonies in the Americas. New York, 2003
La France d'outre-mer (1930–1960): temoignages d'administrateurs et de magistrates. Paris, 2003
Singer B. Cultured force: Makers and defenders of the French colonial empire. Madison, 2004.

The first empire in France. After the coup d'etat of 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte, who became the First Consul of France, legitimizing his power, decided to become the sole ruler of France. In 1804, by decree of the Senate, he was declared “Emperor of the French,” and then solemnly crowned. France became an empire. The monarchy was practically restored, but it now relied not on the nobles, but on the bourgeoisie, the army and government officials, and this was a military monarchy.

Wars of conquest. Napoleon waged wars of conquest. In 1805, Vienna, the capital of Austria, was taken. In 1806 he conquered the capital of Prussia, Berlin. Inspired by his victories, Napoleon signed a decree on a continental blockade of Great Britain. The decree prohibited the countries conquered by Napoleon from trading with Great Britain. Napoleon wanted to strangle England economically.

The continental blockade doomed Napoleon to a long and grueling war for dominance in Europe and the world. In 1807, the “Treaty of Tilsit” was signed. It was a peace treaty, according to which Russia recognized all of Napoleon’s conquests and became an ally of France against England, joining the continental blockade.

Weakening of the empire. Napoleon, who conquered all of Europe, turned out to be powerless before England and Russia. England's powerful navy did not allow France to bring it to its knees.

Russia retained its independence. Although she joined the continental blockade, she did not fulfill the agreement. Russia sent its goods to English markets by US ships.

The French people are also tired of continuous wars. The death of thousands of young people in the war, increased taxes, economic losses from the continental blockade - all this increased the people's dissatisfaction with Napoleon's policies. National liberation movements developed in countries subject to France. To suppress all these protests and regain the sympathy of the people, a great victorious war was needed. Only a war with Russia could bring such glory.

War of 1812 between France and Russia. On June 23, 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia. An army of up to 600 thousand people crossed the border. This war was a war of liberation for Russia and entered its history as the Patriotic War of 1812. Its outcome was decided by the Battle of Borodino, which took place on September 7, 1812 near the village of Borodino, 120 km from Moscow. There were many casualties on both sides, but Napoleon failed to defeat the Russian army. In order to preserve the surviving army, Moscow was surrendered without a fight, and they began to prepare for a decisive offensive.

Soon a disastrous retreat began for the French army, the collapse of which was completed by winter and famine. Of the 570,000-strong Napoleonic army that crossed the Russian border, 18,000 people survived. Napoleon's Grand Army, as the commander-in-chief of the Russian army M.I. wrote in his report to the tsar. Kutuzov, “was completely exterminated.” This was the collapse of the Napoleonic empire.

Fall of the Empire. The new coalition against France included Russia, Great Britain, Prussia, and Austria. The decisive battle between the French army and coalition forces took place in October 1813 near Leipzig, in which Napoleon's 190,000-strong army was defeated. This battle went down in history as the “Battle of the Nations.” In 1814, the coalition army entered Paris. Napoleon was overthrown. After abdicating the throne, he was exiled to the island of Elba. Napoleon's empire fell.

Bourbon Restoration. The victorious allied countries decided to restore the Bourbon dynasty in France. The Senate proclaimed Louis XVIII, the brother of Louis XVI, who was executed during the revolution, as king. But this was no longer an absolute monarchy. Absolutism could not be returned, since capitalist relations had taken deep root in society. Therefore, the king promulgated the Constitution. A peace treaty was concluded between France and the allies, according to which France lost all the territories conquered under Napoleon. The internal situation in the country has become more complicated. Supporters of the old feudal order demanded the restoration of absolutism and the return of lost property to them. This, in turn, worried the bourgeoisie and peasants. In addition, discontent throughout the country caused the dismissal of more than 10 thousand civil servants and 120 thousand officers who served under Napoleon. Napoleon, who was in exile, decided to take advantage of the situation. On his side were still the old guard and a part consisting of Corsicans - his fellow countrymen. In 1815, Napoleon sailed from Elba and landed in the south of France. The 30,000-strong army sent by Louis XVIII against Napoleon went over to Napoleon's side. On March 20, Napoleon captured Paris and took the throne. But this time he stayed in power for only 100 days.

They opposed Napoleon Anglo-Dutch army Wellington And Prussian army Blucher. The decisive battle between them took place on June 18, 1815 near the village of Waterloo (now the territory of Belgium). This battle went down in history as the “Battle of Waterloo.” In this battle, Napoleon suffered a crushing defeat. Napoleon again abdicated the throne and on June 22 of the same year was exiled to the island of St. Helena, where he died in 1821. The Bourbon dynasty again established itself in France.

Congress of Vienna. The victorious countries convened a Congress. It met in the capital of Austria, Vienna, from October 1814 to June 1815. The main goal of the Congress of Vienna was the division of Europe in the interests of the victorious countries.

Summer of 1815 8 European countries: Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Portugal and France signed the final document of the congress. The main goal of Great Britain was to weaken France and consolidate its dominance on the seas and in the conquered colonies. And she achieved it. She found Malta, the island of Ceylon, and the Cape Lands in southern Africa. Most of Poland was ceded to Russia. Germany, which consisted of 300 small states, united into the German Confederation, now consisting of 39 states. This union was led by Austria. The Rhineland and Westphalia were annexed to Prussia. The western part of Poland also became the property of Prussia. Austria gained a foothold in Eastern Italy. Belgium was annexed to Holland.

The independence of Switzerland was restored and it was declared an eternally neutral state. France was returned to its former borders. She was obliged to pay an indemnity in the amount of 700 million francs. Until the indemnity was paid in full, the northern part of France was occupied by allied troops. Thus, France was reduced to the level of a secondary state. The Congress of Vienna also adopted a declaration prohibiting slavery of blacks. Thus, the Congress of Vienna, by forcibly redrawing the map of Europe, changed its political state after the Napoleonic wars.

Holy Alliance. For common struggle with revolutionary movements and to prevent future revolutions in Europe, the governments of three European states - Russia, Austria and Prussia - entered into a monarchical alliance, which went down in history as the Holy Alliance.

Contribution - forced payments collected from defeated state in favor of the winning state.

Already in December 1799 year a new one was adopted French constitution. Formally, France remained a republic with a very complex branched power structure. The executive power, the rights and powers of which were significantly expanded, was vested in three consuls. The first consul - and this was Napoleon Bonaparte - was elected for 10 years. He concentrated virtually all executive power in his hands. The second and third consuls had the right of advisory vote. For the first time, consuls were identified by name in the text of the constitution.

All men who had reached the age of 21 enjoyed the right to vote, but they did not choose deputies, but candidates for deputies. From among them, the government selected members of the local administration and higher legislative bodies. Legislative power was distributed among several bodies - the State Council, the Tribunate, the Legislative Corps - and made dependent on the executive power. All bills, having passed these levels, went to the Senate, whose members were approved by Napoleon himself, and then went to the first consul for signature.

The government also took the legislative initiative. In addition, the constitution gave the first consul the right to introduce bills directly to the Senate, bypassing the legislative bodies. All ministers were subordinate directly to Napoleon.

In fact, this was the regime of Napoleon’s personal power, but it was possible to impose a dictatorship only by preserving the main gains of the revolutionary years: the destruction of feudal relations, the redistribution of land property and a change in its nature.

The new constitution in French history was approved by plebiscite (popular vote). The results of the plebiscite were predetermined. The voting took place publicly, in front of representatives of the new government; many then already voted not for the constitution, but for Napoleon, who gained considerable popularity.

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769 -1821)- an outstanding statesman and military figure of the time when the bourgeoisie was still a young, rising class and sought to consolidate its gains. He was a man with an unyielding will and an extraordinary mind. Under Napoleon, a whole galaxy of talented military leaders emerged ( Murat, Lannes, Davout,Her and many others).

A new plebiscite in 1802 secured the post of first consul for life to Napoleon Bonaparte. He was given the right to appoint a successor, dissolve the Legislative Corps, and personally approve peace treaties.

The strengthening of the power of Napoleon Bonaparte was facilitated by continuous, successful wars for France. In 1802, Napoleon's birthday was declared a national holiday, and from 1803 his image appeared on coins.

First Empire (1804-1814)

The power of the first consul increasingly took on the character of a one-man dictatorship. The logical result was the proclamation of Napoleon Bonaparte in May 1804 Emperor of France under the name Napoleon I. He was solemnly crowned by the Pope himself.

In 1807, the Tribunate, the only body where there was opposition to the Bonapartist regime, was abolished. A magnificent court was created, court titles were restored, and the title of marshal of the empire was introduced. The atmosphere, morals, and life of the French court imitated the old pre-revolutionary royal court. The address “citizen” disappeared from everyday life, but the words “sovereign” and “your imperial majesty” appeared.

In 1802, a law was issued on amnesty for emigrant nobles. The old aristocracy, returning from emigration, gradually strengthened its position. More than half of the prefects appointed in Napoleonic times belonged to the old nobility by origin.

Along with this, the French emperor, trying to strengthen his regime, created a new elite; it received noble titles from him and owed everything to him.

From 1808 to 1814, 3,600 titles of nobility were granted; Lands were distributed both in France and abroad - land ownership was an indicator of wealth and social status.

However, the revival of titles did not mean a return to the old feudal structure of society. Class privileges were not restored; Napoleon's legislation consolidated legal equality.

Napoleon made all his brothers kings in the countries of Europe conquered by France. In 1805 he declared himself king of Italy. At the height of his power in 1810, Napoleon I, due to the childlessness of Empress Josephine, began searching for a new wife in one of the reigning houses of feudal Europe. He was denied marriage to the Russian princess.

But the Austrian court agreed to the marriage of Napoleon I with the Austrian princess Marie-Louise. With this marriage, Napoleon hoped to join the ranks of the “legitimate” monarchs of Europe and establish his own dynasty.

Napoleon sought to solve the most acute internal political problem since the beginning of the revolution - the relationship between the bourgeois state and the church. In 1801, a concordat was concluded with Pope Pius VII. Catholicism was declared the religion of the majority of the French. The separation of church and state was destroyed, the state again obliged to provide maintenance for clergy and restore religious holidays.

The Pope, in turn, recognized the sold church lands as the property of the new owners and agreed that the highest church officials should be appointed by the government. The Church introduced a special prayer for the health of the consul and then the emperor. Thus, the church became the support of the Bonapartist regime.

During the years of the Consulate and the Empire in the history of France, the democratic gains of the revolution were mostly eliminated. Elections and plebiscites were formal in nature, and declarations of political freedom became convenient demagogy to cover up the despotic nature of government.

At the time Napoleon came to power, the financial situation of the country was extremely difficult: the treasury was empty, civil servants had not received salaries for a long time. Streamlining finances has become one of the government's top priorities. By increasing indirect taxes, the government managed to stabilize the financial system. Direct taxes (on capital) were reduced, which was in the interests of the big bourgeoisie.

Successful wars and protectionist policies boosted exports. Napoleon imposed trade terms favorable to France on European states. As a result of the victorious march of the French army, all European markets were open to French goods. Protectionist customs policy protected French entrepreneurs from competition from English goods.

In general, the time of the Consulate and the Empire was favorable for the industrial development of France.

The regime established in France under Napoleon Bonaparte was called " Bonapartism" The dictatorship of Napoleon was a special form of the bourgeois state, in which the bourgeoisie itself was excluded from direct participation in political power. Maneuvering between various social forces, relying on powerful device public administration, Napoleon's power gained a certain independence in relation to social classes.

In an effort to unite the majority of the nation around the regime and present himself as a spokesman for national interests, Napoleon adopted the idea of ​​national unity, born of the French Revolution. However, this was no longer a defense of the principles of national sovereignty, but propaganda of the national exclusivity of the French, the hegemony of France in the international arena. Therefore, in the field of foreign policy, Bonapartism is characterized by pronounced nationalism. The years of the Consulate and the First Empire were marked by almost continuous bloody wars waged by Napoleonic France with the states of Europe. In the conquered countries and vassal states of France, Napoleon pursued a policy that was aimed at turning them into a market for French goods and a source of raw materials for French industry. Napoleon repeatedly said: “ My principle is France first " In the dependent states, in the interests of the French bourgeoisie, economic development was slowed down by imposing unfavorable trade deals and establishing monopoly prices for French goods. Huge indemnities were siphoned out of these states.

Already by 1806, Napoleon Bonaparte had formed a huge empire, reminiscent of the times of Charlemagne. In 1806, Austria and Prussia were defeated. At the end of October 1806, Napoleon entered Berlin. Here, on November 21, 1806, he signed a decree on the continental blockade, which played a big role in the fate of European countries.

According to the decree, trade with the British Isles was strictly prohibited throughout the French Empire and its dependent countries. Violation of this decree and smuggling of English goods were punishable by severe repressions, including the death penalty. With this blockade, France sought to crush the economic potential of England and bring it to its knees.

However, Napoleon did not achieve his goal - the economic destruction of England. Although the English economy experienced difficulties during these years, they were not catastrophic: England owned vast colonies, had well-established contacts with the American continent and, despite all the prohibitions, made extensive use of smuggled trade in English goods in Europe.

The blockade was difficult for the economies of European countries. French industry could not replace the cheaper and higher quality goods of English enterprises. The break with England gave rise to economic crises in European countries, which led to restrictions on the sale of French goods in them. The blockade to a certain extent contributed to the growth of French industry, but very soon it became clear that French industry could not do without English industrial products and raw materials.

The blockade paralyzed the life of such large port cities of France as Marseille, Le Havre, Nantes, and Toulon for a long time. In 1810, a system of licenses was introduced for the right to limited trade in English goods, but the cost of these licenses was high. Napoleon used the blockade as a means of protecting the developing French economy and as a source of revenue for the treasury.

At the end of the first decade of the 19th century, the crisis of the First Empire in France began. Its manifestations were periodic economic downturns and the growing fatigue of broad sections of the population from continuous wars. In 1810-1811, an acute economic crisis began in France. The negative consequences of the continental blockade were felt: there was a shortage of raw materials and industrial products, and the cost of production was rising. The bourgeoisie moved into opposition to the Bonapartist regime. The final blow to Napoleonic France was dealt by the military defeats of 1812-1814.

On October 16-19, 1813, a decisive battle took place near Leipzig between Napoleon's army and the united army of the allied states of Europe. The battle of Leipzig was called the Battle of the Nations. Napoleon's army was defeated.

On March 31, 1914, the Allied army entered Paris. Napoleon abdicated the throne in favor of his son. However, the Senate, under pressure from European powers, decided to once again elevate the Bourbon dynasty - the Count of Provence, brother of the executed Louis XVI - to the French throne. Napoleon was exiled for life to the island of Elba.

On May 30, 1814, a peace treaty was signed in Paris: France was deprived of all territorial acquisitions and returned to the borders of 1792. The agreement provided for the convening of an international congress in Vienna to finally resolve all issues related to the collapse of the Napoleonic empire.