Skeleton

Importance of the musculoskeletal system

The human musculoskeletal system consists of passive (skeleton and its joints) and active (muscles) sections.

Skeleton- a set of bones of the body connected to each other.

Skeletal functions

The skeleton performs two functions: mechanical and biological.

Mechanical function includes:

Supportive function - bones, together with their joints, form the support of the body, to which soft tissues and organs are attached;

The function of locomotion (albeit indirectly, since the skeleton serves to attach skeletal muscles);

Spring function - due to articular cartilage and other skeletal structures (arch of the foot, curves of the spine), softening shocks and shocks;

Protective function - the formation of bone formations to protect important organs: the brain and spinal cord; heart, lungs. The genital organs are located in the pelvic cavity. The bones themselves contain red bone marrow.

Biological function is understood as:

Hematopoietic function - red bone marrow, located in the bones, is a source of blood cells;

Storage function - bones serve as a depot for many inorganic compounds: phosphorus, calcium, iron, magnesium and therefore participate in maintaining a constant mineral composition of the internal environment of the body.

There are more than 200 bones in the human skeleton. They are formed by bone tissue, which includes organic substances (ossein, osseomucoid, etc.) and inorganic compounds (mainly calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate). Organic substances give bones flexibility and elasticity, inorganic substances give hardness. The share of organic substances from bone mass is about 30%, the remaining 70% is inorganic compounds. With age, the proportion of inorganic substances increases and the proportion of organic substances decreases, which makes bones more fragile and difficult to fight after fractures.

Bone structure.

On longitudinal cut tubular bone (Fig. 12.4) two types of bone substance are clearly distinguished: on the outside - dense compact and inside - spongy. Both types of substance consist of loosely located bone cells and intercellular substance secreted by them with immersed V it with protein fibers. Together these elements form bone plates, and they, in turn, are larger bone bars, or beams. In the spongy substance, the crossbars are arranged loosely, forming cells between themselves like a sponge. If the crossbars fit tightly together in the form of concentric circles around the channels in which the nerves and blood vessels that feed the bone pass, then a compact bone substance is formed. The compact substance, being on the outside, gives the bone strength, and the spongy substance reduces the mass of the bone. The ratio of dense to compact bone matter varies between bones and depends on their shape, function and location.

The outside of the bone, with the exception of the articular surfaces, is covered periosteum. It is a dense connective tissue cover, which is fused to the bone through collagen fibers. The periosteum contains many blood vessels that penetrate the thickness of the bone and nourish it. The inner layer of the periosteum contains cells (osteoblasts) that are capable of forming new bone cells. Therefore, the periosteum ensures the growth of bone thickness, as well as the healing of bone fractures.

Bone contains two types of marrow. The cells between the trabeculae of the cancellous bone are filled red bone marrow. It contains many blood vessels that feed the bone from the inside, as well as hematopoietic cells. The cavity of the tubular bones contains yellow bone marrow represented mainly by fat cells, giving it a yellow color.

Shape of bones. Based on their shape, the bones of the skeleton are divided into tubular, flat and mixed.

Tubular bones divided into long and short. Long the tubular bones that form the basis of the limbs act as levers driven by muscles (bones of the shoulder, forearm, thigh, lower leg). These bones have thickened ends - heads, or epiphyses, and a hollow (tube-shaped) middle part - the body, or diaphysis, the walls of which are formed compact substance. Being light, such bones are able to provide great resistance to compression and stretching. During the period of bone growth, cartilaginous layers are located between the body and the heads. Cartilage cells divide towards the ends of the bone, and on the opposite side of the layer, cartilage is replaced by bone, resulting in the length of the bone increasing. Complete ossification of the human skeleton occurs by 20-25 years. Short tubular bones are located in places where great mobility is combined with resistance to compressive forces (tarsal bones, wrists).

Flat bones form protective cavities for internal organs (skull bones, pelvic bones, ribs, shoulder blades, etc.).

TO mixed belong to bones formed from several parts with different structures and functions (temporal, sphenoid bones).

Connection of bones

There are three types of bone connections: fixed, semi-movable and movable, or joint

Fixed connections are carried out by fusion of bones (sacral vertebrae), as well as sutures (skull bones). They provide reliable connections and the ability to withstand heavy loads.

Semi-mobile are called connections of bones with the help of cartilage (connection of vertebrae in the spine, ribs with the sternum).

Joint - most common and complex shape connection of bones, providing a movable connection. Joints, regardless of differences in mobility, consist of three essential elements: articular surfaces, articular capsule and articular cavity (see Fig. 12.5). Articular surfaces The articulating bones are perfectly shaped and fit tightly to each other. They are covered with special (hyaline) cartilage. Their smooth surface facilitates movement in the joint, and the elasticity of the cartilage softens the shocks and shocks experienced by the joint. Connective tissue joint capsule stretched between the articulating ends of the bones and attached to the edge of the articular surfaces, where it passes into the periosteum. In most joints, the bursa is reinforced on the outside with ligaments. Articular cavity sealed and surrounded by articular cartilage and articular capsule. It contains a small amount of viscous fluid that lubricates the articular cartilage, which reduces friction in the joints during movement. Due to the negative pressure in the articular cavity, the surfaces of the articulating bones are closely adjacent to each other.

Based on the shape of the articular surfaces, four types of joints are distinguished: flat(between the bones of the wrist and metacarpus), cylindrical(articulation between the ulna and radius bones), elliptical(the articulation between the bones of the forearm and hand) and spherical(shoulder and hip joints). Flat joints provide the least mobility, while spherical joints provide the greatest mobility.

The structure of the human skeleton and its features.

The skeleton has three sections: the skeleton of the torso, the upper and lower extremities and the head - the skull

Skeleton of the torso consists of the spinal column and thorax. The spinal column is the support of the body. It is formed by 33-34 vertebrae and has 5 sections: cervical - 7 vertebrae, thoracic - 12, lumbar - 5, sacral - 5 and coccygeal - 4-5 vertebrae.

Each vertebra consists from the body And arcs. Seven processes extend from the vertebra: two transverse, an unpaired spinous process, and two superior and inferior articular processes. With the help of the latter, the vertebrae articulate with each other. Between the body and the vertebral arch there is a vertebral foramen. The collection of vertebral foramina located one above the other forms spinal canal, in which contains the spinal cord. The size of the vertebral bodies increases from cervical spine to the lumbar due to the increasing load on the lower vertebrae. The vertebral bodies are connected to each other by cartilaginous intervertebral discs, ensuring its mobility and flexibility. The sacral and coccygeal vertebrae are fused together and form the sacral and coccygeal bones.

Due to the upright posture of a person, his spine has four bending In the cervical and lumbar regions, the curves are convex forward (lordosis), in the thoracic and sacral sections they are convex backward (kyphosis). Thanks to S-shape The spine softens shocks when walking, jumping and running, makes it easier to maintain body balance and increases the volume of the chest and pelvis cavity.

The thoracic vertebrae, 12 pairs of ribs and the sternum together form chest. Flat, arched ribs articulate with the transverse processes of the thoracic vertebral bodies. Top ribs - 7 pairs - directly connected with sternum - flat bone lying along the midline of the chest. The 8th-10th pairs of ribs located below them are connected to each other by cartilage and attached to the 7th pair of ribs. The 11th and 12th pairs of ribs do not connect to the sternum and are located freely in the soft tissues. The rib cage protects the heart, lungs, trachea, esophagus and large blood vessels located in it. Due to the rhythmic raising and lowering of the ribs, the volume of the chest changes. Due to human walking upright, its shape is flat and wide.

Skeleton of the upper limbs includes the shoulder girdle and the skeleton of the free upper limbs (arms). The shoulder girdle consists of two paired bones - shoulder blades And collarbone. The scapula is a flat triangular bone, the outer angle of which forms the glenoid cavity for articulation with the head of the humerus. The collarbones are connected at one end to the sternum, and at the other to the scapula, thanks to which the human hand is able to make various movements in three planes. The skeleton of the free upper limb is formed humerus, forearm, consisting of the ulna and radius bones, as well as with a brush. There are eight short tubular bones in the hand wrists, arranged in two rows of four bones, five long bones metacarpus, each of which has three phalanx fingers (except for the thumb with two phalanges).

Skeleton of the lower limbs consists of the pelvic girdle and free lower limbs (legs). Pelvic girdle formed by a pair of massive pelvic bones, which are fused with the sacrum at the back, and connected at the front with the help of cartilage (pubic fusion). In a growing body, the pelvic bone consists of three bones connected by cartilage tissue: iliac, sciatic And pubic At the place of their fusion there is a depression - acetabulum, serving to connect to the head of the femur. Due to upright posture, the human pelvis is wide and cup-shaped. The female pelvis is wider and shorter in shape, the male pelvis is longer and narrower.

The skeleton of the free lower limb consists of femur, tibia bones(tibia and fibula) and foot bones(seven bones tarsals, five metatarsus And phalanx fingers). The foot has an arch formed by resting on the protrusion calcaneus and the front part of the metacarpal bones. An arched foot softens the shock of the body when walking.

Head skeleton (skull) consists of two sections: brain and facial. Brain department the volume is four times greater than the facial one (in monkeys they are equal). The brain skull is formed by two paired bones (parietal and temporal) and four unpaired bones (frontal, occipital, ethmoid and sphenoid). Part facial section The skull, which forms the bony skeleton of the face, includes three unpaired bones (mandible, vomer and hyoid) and six paired bones (maxillary, palatine, zygomatic, nasal, lacrimal and inferior turbinates). The bones of the upper and lower jaws each have 16 cells for the necks and roots of teeth. All bones of the skull, with the exception of the lower jaw, are connected motionlessly. The lower jaw is connected by a joint to the processes of the temporal bones

Skull bones

Skeletal damage

Incorrect body position for a long time (for example, sitting at a table with your head constantly bowed, incorrect posture, etc.), as well as some hereditary causes (especially in combination with poor nutrition and weak physical development) To poor posture. Poor posture can be prevented by developing correct landing at the table, as well as while playing sports (swimming, special gymnastics complexes). Another common skeletal disorder is flat feet– deformation of the foot that occurs under the influence of diseases, fractures or prolonged overload of the foot during the period of growth of the body. With flat feet, the foot touches the floor with the entire area of ​​the sole. As preventive measures It is recommended to select shoes more carefully and use a special set of exercises for the muscles of the lower leg and foot.

As a result of too much physical stress on the bone, it can occur. fracture Fractures are divided into open (that is, with the presence of a wound) and closed. Three quarters of all fractures occur in the arms and legs. Signs of a fracture are strong pain in the area of ​​injury, deformation of the limb in the area of ​​the fracture and impairment of its function. If a fracture is suspected, the injured person should be treated first aid: stop bleeding, cover the fracture site with a sterile bandage (in case of an open fracture), ensure immobility of the injured area by applying a splint (any rigid object that is tied to the limb above and below the fracture site so as to immobilize both the damaged bone and both joints ) and deliver the patient to medical institution. There, using x-ray diagnostics, the fracture site is localized and it is determined whether the fragments are displaced. Then the bone fragments are combined (in no case should you do this yourself) and a plaster cast is applied, ensuring fusion of the bone. Less severe injury is injury(damage to muscles upon impact, often accompanied by subcutaneous hemorrhage). Local application of cold (ice pack, cold water jet) can reduce pain in minor bruises.

Dislocation is called persistent displacement of the articular ends of bones, which causes dysfunction of the joint. Do not try to correct the dislocation yourself; this may cause additional injury. It is necessary to immobilize the damaged joint and apply cold to it; Warming compresses are contraindicated in this case. Then the victim must be urgently transferred to a doctor.

Sprain. To ensure that the bones do not jump out of the joints and can make diverse, precise movements, they are connected by ligaments. The ligaments are like flexible and elastic straps. But sometimes when a foot, leg or wrist is twisted, when there is a lot of pressure on the joints of the arm or leg, or if a sudden movement is made in the joint, a ligament injury or sprain may occur. This is a serious injury, manifests itself as pain, and sometimes bluish swelling appears around the joint. First of all, you need to apply a tight bandage and apply cold.

To avoid spraining, you need to be able to move, but also be able to fall.

Remember, the main rule. If you fall, do not put your arms or legs out to the sides, do not try to lean on them. On the contrary, try to become a “bun”: press your chin to your chest, legs and arms to your stomach. You can clasp your head with your hands. And under no circumstances should you tense up, your body should be relaxed.

Dislocation. When a dislocation occurs, a permanent displacement of the articular surfaces occurs. It is usually accompanied by rupture of the joint capsule. A dislocation is characterized by shortening or lengthening of the limb, severe pain in the joint, and limited mobility. A change in the joint, the dislocated bone protrudes in a new unusual place. When a sprain occurs, ligaments, blood vessels and nerves can be damaged. Only a medical professional can reduce a dislocation. Under no circumstances should you do this yourself, since inept actions can further injure ligaments, blood vessels and nerves. First aid consists, first of all, in making the injured limb immobile. To do this, a tight bandage is applied to reduce pain and swelling and cold is applied. The victim must be taken to a medical facility.

Fractures sternum and ribs often occur when the chest is compressed, a sharp blow when falling. The middle ribs 4, 5, 6, 7 are most often affected. It is not difficult to recognize a rib fracture. When breathing deeply, the victim feels pain. Especially when coughing and sneezing. A slight swelling may be seen at the fracture site. The victim needs to exhale deeply and in this position apply a tight pressure bandage; to do this, wrap the chest with a towel or sheet and secure the fabric with pins. At the emergency room they will take pictures and provide qualified assistance.

A collarbone fracture can be caused by a blow or a fall. It is not difficult to recognize a fracture. Whenever an attempt is made to move the arm, the victim feels a sharp pain, swelling is observed in the collarbone area, the arm hangs, and bone fragments clearly appear under the skin.

Do not under any circumstances try to reset the protruding fragments under the skin! First, it is necessary to immobilize the injured limb of the victim. To do this, you need to move your arms back, put any stick behind your back, so that he holds it in the elbow bends. In this position, the victim is taken to a medical facility. Or hang the injured arm on a scarf at a right angle.

Injuries to the lower leg bones can often occur when a person falls in a traffic accident.

In the area of ​​the fracture, swelling quickly increases and acute pain occurs. Therefore, the injured leg must be placed in the correct position and the shoes must be removed immediately. It is necessary to apply splints. You can use improvised means, rods, boards, they need to be wrapped soft cloth. It is necessary to fix two joints: the knee and ankle. As a last resort, the injured leg can be bandaged to the healthy one. If there are no bandages, secure the splint with a scarf, shirt, or towel. The victim must be taken to a medical facility on a stretcher as quickly as possible.

PROVIDING FIRST MEDICAL AID FOR BRUISES, STRAINS AND TORTURES OF LIGAMENTS AND MUSCLES Apply cold to the damaged area Apply a tight bandage to the damaged area Give the victim an anesthetic Provide rest to the injured limb and give it an elevated position Deliver the victim to a medical facility

PROVIDING FIRST MEDICAL AID FOR DISLOCATIONS Provide rest to the injured limb Apply a tight bandage to the damaged area Give the victim an anesthetic Take the victim to a medical facility

PROVIDING FIRST MEDICAL AID FOR OPEN FRACTURES Stop the bleeding and treat the edges of the wound with an antiseptic Apply a sterile bandage to the wound in the fracture area Give the victim an anesthetic Immobilize (immobilize) the limb in the position in which it was at the time of injury Deliver the victim to a medical facility

PROVIDING FIRST MEDICAL AID FOR CLOSED FRACTURES Immobilize (immobilize the fracture site) Give the victim an anesthetic and apply cold to the injury site Deliver the victim to a medical facility

Injury to the spine and back is one of the most severe injuries that deprive the body of support, and when the spinal cord is involved in the traumatic process, the functions of internal organs and limbs. Injuries to the spinal cord and nerves can cause paralysis, loss of sensation or motor activity. Injuries to the spine and back are divided into bruises and fractures with or without involvement of the spinal cord in the traumatic process. Trauma can be closed or open (wounds). First aid: give anesthetic; place the patient on his back; cover wounds with aseptic dressings.

PROVIDING FIRST MEDICAL AID FOR HEAD OR SPINE INJURIES If possible, keep the victim's head and spine motionless, use your hands to fix the victim's head on both sides in the position in which you found him. Maintain the airway. In case of vomiting, turn the victim on his side to prevent blockage of the airways with vomit. Monitor the level of consciousness and breathing of the victim. Stop external bleeding Maintain the victim's body temperature

PROVIDING FIRST MEDICAL AID FOR A RIB FRACTURE Give the victim an anesthetic Apply a tight bandage to the chest, making the first strokes of the bandage while exhaling. If there is no bandage, you can use a towel, piece of cloth or sheet. Place the victim in an elevated position in a sitting (reclining) position.

PROVIDING FIRST MEDICAL AID FOR PELVIC BONE FRACTURE Lay the victim on his back on a hard board (boards, plywood) Place a rolled up blanket or coat under his knees so that the lower limbs are bent at the knees Give the victim an anesthetic Urgently call an ambulance

Passive motor system This part of the motor system is represented by the skeleton. Skeleton (from the Greek skeleton - dried) is a collection of bones and their joints. The human skeleton consists of approximately 205 - 210 bones. The skeletal mass of an adult is 1/7 - 1/5 of body weight. Functions of the skeleton The skeleton performs a number of important functions:
	[Back to top of page]

Chemical composition and physical properties bones

Bone matter consists of mineral salts (about 70%) and organic substances (about 30%). More than half of all minerals- This is calcium phosphate. The main organic substances of bone are proteins collagen and ossein. Mineral substances give bones hardness and fragility, organic substances give flexibility, firmness, and elasticity. In general, the combination of organic and inorganic substances gives bones greater strength. The hardness and strength of the bones is comparable to cast iron and brick, so the bones can withstand heavy loads. For example, the tibia can withstand a load of about 3 tons without breaking. The ratio of organic and inorganic matter changes with age. Children have a slightly higher amount of organic matter, so their bones are more elastic, elastic and flexible and are less likely to break. In older and older people, the amount of inorganic substances increases slightly; their bones are less elastic and more fragile, so they break more often even with minor injuries.

Classification of bones

The entire variety of skeletal bones can be classified into groups according to different principles:

1. External shape, dimensions:

• long;
• short;
• wide;

By internal structure:

• tubular(limb bones);
• spongy(ribs, etc.);
• flat(skull bones, scapula, etc.);
• pneumatic(some bones of the skull, for example, ethmoid, sphenoid);
• mixed(vertebrae, collarbone, etc.);
• By location:
• head bones;
• trunk bones;
• bones of free limbs and their girdles.

Bone structure

(using the example of a tubular bone)

In the external structure of the tubular bone, an elongated middle part is distinguished - body, or diaphysis, having a cylindrical or nearly triangular shape . The extended end sections are called epiphyses. Between the epiphysis and diaphysis there is a region called metaphysis. The epiphyseal portion of the bone is involved in the formation of the joint; its surface is covered hyaline cartilage. The rest of the bone surface is covered periosteum. The periosteum is formed by two tissue layers: the outer one is dense connective tissue, the inner one is epithelial tissue. The periosteum is pinkish in color and contains many small blood vessels and pain receptors. Functions of the periosteum:

1. protective
2. trophic
3. exchange(nutrition of the bone due to the development of blood vessels)
4. bone-forming(cells in the inner layer of the periosteum continually divide to form bone cells - osteoblasts, due to which the bone grows in thickness)
5. provides callus formation during bone fusion.

In young, growing bones in the area of ​​the metaphysis there is a continuous cartilaginous layer - metaphyseal cartilage. Due to the division of its cells, the bone grows in length. In the area of ​​the diaphysis there are bony elevations - apophyses, to which skeletal muscles are attached. In the area of ​​the diaphysis there is a cavity inside the bone, the bone wall of which is limited compact bone substance. Diaphyses educated spongy bone substance, which contains numerous small cells. The surface of the diaphysis is covered with a thin layer of compact bone substance. The cavity inside the diaphysis and all the cells in the spongy substance of the epiphyses are filled with bone marrow. During the prenatal period and early childhood found only in bones red bone marrow. It is an organ of hematopoiesis and immune defense. Gradually, with age, red bone marrow in the cavities of the diaphysis of tubular bones is replaced yellow bone marrow, which is formed by adipose tissue and performs a storage function. The shape, size, external and internal structure of bones are greatly influenced by the intensity and nature of physical activity.

Bone connections

Thanks to their connections, the bones form a single system - the skeleton. There are three types of bone joints:

1. continuous (stationary)
2. semi-continuous (semi-moving))
3. discontinuous (moving).

Continuous connections formed by a continuous tissue layer of connective tissue (bone, cartilage, etc.) that connects two or more bones. Such connections, especially those formed with the help of bone tissue, are immobile. They are present in those parts of the skeleton where it is necessary to provide reliable support, protection for internal organs and immobility of bones. Examples: fusion of bones forming the pelvic bone, sutures between the bones of the skull, etc.

Semi-continuous connections: The bones are connected by a continuous tissue layer, but in its depth there is a small gap not occupied by tissue. These connections have great strength and very limited mobility. Examples: pubic fusion (connection of two pelvic bones in front), connections of vertebral bodies.

Discontinuous connections (joints)- these are movable connections. The degree of mobility depends on the structural features of a particular joint.

The joint consists of the following elements:

• articular areas articulating bones; the articular surfaces are covered with articular hyaline cartilage, which has a very smooth, shiny surface; this cartilage is hard, elastic, very durable;
• joint capsule- this is a capsule enclosing the articular sections of bones;
• articular cavity - this is the space inside the joint capsule; it is sealed, filled synovyl (articular) liquid, its pressure is slightly lower than atmospheric;
• extra-articular and intra-articular ligaments formed by dense fibrous connective tissue and give strength to the joint;
• disks And menisci are located inside the joint, increase the conformity of the articular surfaces and provide shock absorption.

The joints in the skeleton are very diverse. Highlight simple and complex joints. Simple joints are formed by two bones, while complex joints are formed by more than two bones. According to the shape of the articular surfaces there are flat, ellipsoidal, saddle-shaped, spherical joints, according to the number of axes of rotation - single-axis, two-axis, three-axis.

Complex joint includes several simple or complex joints.

Spinal hygiene

"All Cretans are liars" - said Epimenides , one of the seven greatest Greek philosophers and sages, although he could have lied, since he himself was a true Cretan and knew perfectly well all the myths and legends that arose in Crete.

The first who did not believe in the truth of the aphorism of the philosopher Epimenides was the English archaeologist Arthur Evans.

It all started with in 1889 English traveler and antiquities expert Greville Chester brought as a gift to the museum Ashmolean in Oxford several antiquities, among which was carnelian seal. On the four oval sides of the seal there were images of stylized pictorial signs, resembling hieroglyphs and the printing itself took place supposedly from Sparta. The carnelian seal passed into the care of museum curator Arthur Evans.

Having analyzed the signs on the carnelian seal, Arthur Evans drew attention to the similarity of the seal signs with Hittite hieroglyphs, which seemed to be especially intensified when looking at the image of the head of a dog or wolf with its tongue sticking out (in the third oval). However, the similarity was limited to this; otherwise, nothing similar was found in any of the ancient cultural areas of the world, and therefore Evans resorted to a variety of assumptions about the possibility of the origin of the seal, including to the aid of the hypothesis of “prehistoric” Greece.

Four years later, in the spring of 1893, Arthur Evans went to Greece , and here in Athens, during my research I came across several copies of a seal similar to that first carnelian seal received as a gift from Chester . Evans was able to find four- and three-sided seals in Greece, drilled along the axis. To all questions about their origin, Evans heard the same answer: they were brought from Crete. Having requested the Berlin Museum, Evans received from there casts from a number of similar specimens, and to this was added a gem found in Athens by A. G. Says.

WE PI-TI FOR YOU

Having returned to England, Evans could already report to the London Society of Lovers of Hellenic Antiquities in November 1893 about the discovery about 60 hieroglyphic symbols, dating back, obviously, to the once widespread ancient writing that existed on Crete in the pre-Greek era. And in next year Evans himself arrived in Crete.

Evans visited the territories of the inner and eastern part of the island, his expectations were confirmed, and his hopes of finding the legendary palace of King Minos came true.

Evans managed to collect a huge number of objects related to that ancient culture that Homer once sang about - the culture of the hundred cities of the kingdom of Minos.

One lucky find particularly pleased the passionate collector and confirmed Evans's assumptions about the origin of carnelian seals. He discovered in the land of Crete a cast of the same carnelian seal that was found in Sparta, and this cast belonged to its former owner - the ancient culture of the kingdom of Minos!

If some 50 years ago Wright, who discovered the Hamat Stone, feared not only for its safety, but also for his life and safety, expecting an attack by the superstitious Syrians, then on Crete another, no less firmly rooted superstition came to Evans’ aid. Spending his time tirelessly searching for stone seals and gems, Evans discovered that almost all of them were drilled, which means that the inhabitants of Crete wore them as a magical talisman or amulet in ancient times. Evans was delighted to discover that Cretan peasant women and almost all rural women still wore carnelian jewelry and amulets on a cord or chain.

The main value of such amulets was that they were “halopetrais” - “milk stones” , or “galousais” - “giving milk”, “bringing milk”, they were in especially great demand among pregnant women.

Having learned this, Evans began a systematic tour of the villages of Crete, visiting house after house, hut after hut, and invariably admiring the jewelry of the village beauties. Thus, he had the opportunity to admire magnificent examples of drilled seals, amulets ancient Cretan era. Evans tactfully persuaded elderly peasant women, who naturally had a hard time parting with their “milk stones,” to sell their talismans for good money. Many women of Crete were so attached to their treasure, inherited from their ancestors. But there were also owners who, without hesitation, donated their talisman to a visiting Englishman as soon as he offered in return another drilled amulet or gem, but more beautiful, and, moreover, of the same milky white color, which was the subject of special desire.

If the owner of the miraculous amulet did not want to part with it under any circumstances, then Evans had to be content with the cast. During his research in Crete, many other ancient things covered with Minoan writing fell into the hands of Arthur Evans, but unlike the first finds, these signs were of “linear” writing, or “quasi-alphabetic” - consonantal writing - a type of phonetic writing that conveys only or predominantly consonant sounds (lat. consonant ).

KO-NO-SO = Knossos. 1425-1300 BC e.

This is how a British collector learned about the existence of two ancient local systems letters originating in Minoan Crete - pictographic and linear. It was a discovery of enormous importance that Evans immediately decided to look in Crete for evidence of the existence of the Minoan civilization. However, for this it was necessary to begin archaeological excavations in Crete.

Evans’ decision to “dig in Crete” came naturally; he even knew where to stick the spade, and was already preparing to get down to business.

Arthur Evans had to accomplish what Heinrich Schliemann considered his unfulfilled dream and his life’s work. " My main goal was Knossos,- Evans wrote, - the city of Minos, a place shrouded in legends where a palace built by the skilled craftsman Daedalus with wonderful works of art, with Ariadne’s ballroom and the Labyrinth, it all hovered before my eyes.”

Evans knew where to look for Knossos. The location of the Knossos Palace was indicated by Buondelmonte back in the 15th century. On the site of the ancient city of Knossos was the village of Makroticho, or Makritichos (" Long wall») , which lay in an enclosed valley leading inland, six kilometers south of Candia (present-day Herakleion).

The island of Crete at that time was under Turkish rule, and under Turkish rule on the island, only those who owned the land could have the right to conduct archaeological excavations. For this reason, Heinrich Schliemann was not yet able to obtain permission from the Turkish government for excavations in Crete.

Is it true, in 1877 Spanish consul , a native of Candia, Minos Kalokairinos, excavated storage rooms for supplies, where he found large clay jugs - “pithos”, And a tablet covered with writing.

Then, armed with the consent of the Sublime Porte, the American W. D. Stillman began archaeological excavations, but not for long, since the promised Turkish permission or “state firman” did not appear. Heinrich Schliemann in 1889 wished to buy the territory from all the numerous owners “Kefala tselempe”, or “hill of the rulers”, but failed completely, faced with the extraordinary greed of the landowners of Crete and the obstruction of the Ottoman officials, and abandoned his project.

Arthur Evans faced the same obstacles, however, while searching for carnelian amulets from the “milkstone”, he still managed to secure a plot of land on "hill of rulers" . After the Turks finally abandoned Crete in 1899, Arthur Evans bought up all the land on the hill and obtained permission from the Greek authorities for archaeological excavations.

Finally, in 1900 by the English archaeologist Arthur Evans began archaeological excavations in Crete, and discovered the very legendary ancient capital King Minos, the city of Knossos and the royal palace, reminiscent of a labyrinth, which was mentioned more than once in myths and legends and found in the descriptions of ancient historians.

During the excavations, Evans managed to collect a huge number of objects related to the ancient culture that Homer once sang - to the culture of the era of Crete, a hundred cities - the kingdom of Minos. But one lucky find especially delighted the passionate collector and confirmed his assumptions: here, in Crete, he discovered a cast of a carnelian seal from Sparta, and the seal itself was found in the land of Crete.

Evans managed to fairly accurately restore the chronology of the history of Crete, since they helped date the finds of the Minoan kingdom numerous Egyptian things , discovered during archaeological excavations on the island of Crete. The history of Ancient Egypt was already more or less known by Evans' time. All that remained was to compare the dates, names and techniques of execution of the found artifacts.

Thucydides believed that King Minos himself was not Greek, but “quite the contrary,” as Homer claimed . Herodotus considered Minos the king of the Cretan Achaeans, who began to reign on Crete at the age of 9.

Legendary Crete is the cradle of the ancient Greek gods, this is well reminded famous myths: about the birth of the thunderer Zeus on Crete , about how he kidnapped in the form of a bull Phoenician beautiful princess Europe how their children were born - Minos, Rhadamanthus and Sarpedon. When Zeus defeated his father, the Titan Cronus, and became the chief among the immortal gods, the defenseless Europe remained in Crete alone with her young sons. To ensure their safety, Zeus gave them a powerful bodyguard - the copper giant Tal, forged by Hephaestus. In the morning, afternoon and evening, the copper giant Tal walked around the island of Crete and sank all the ships approaching the shore, throwing huge blocks of stone at them. If there were too many ships, then the giant hospitably gave strangers the opportunity to land on the shore, stood in the fire, heated it red-hot and embraced them in his hot embrace of uninvited guests.

Perhaps the myths about the unprecedented wonders of Crete were deliberately created by the Cretans themselves to scare away foreign invasions.

During archaeological excavations at Knossos, Arthur Evans drew attention to a completely unique circumstance: the city of Knossos did not have defensive city walls . Later, this fact was established in some other cities of Crete. Apparently, the copper giant Tal and the legends about him actually defended the island of Crete well.

Homer in the Odyssey speaks of the hundred cities of Crete:

The island is Crete in the middle of the wine-colored sea, beautiful,
Fat, surrounded by waters everywhere, abundant in people;
There they inhabit ninety great cities,
Different languages ​​are heard there...
Elsewhere Homer calls Crete "centigrade". The Roman poet Virgil, a contemporary of Augustus, also writes in the Aeneid:

The island of Jupiter "Crete" lies in the middle of a wide sea,
Our tribe has its cradle there, near high Ida.
A hundred great cities stand there—abundant kingdoms.

About the hundred cities of Crete Ovid and Pomponius Mela repeatedly told. Apparently, there really was a great kingdom here.

The emergence of the power of King Minos coincided with the beginning of dominance on Crete of the Achaean tribes, who seized power on the island I millennium BC e. and turned part of the conquered population into state slaves, common slaves of the entire city community, these slaves were called "mnoits ", that is "belonging to Minos" , but in Crete there were also slaves owned by individual citizens - this "Afamiots" and "Claritas".

It is quite logical to connect the reign of King Minos on Crete with the First Middle Minoan period (3000-2200 BC). Just at this time, active construction of palace and residential complexes - numerous Cretan cities - began on the island of Crete.

Elena Popelnitskaya

ARTHUR EVANS: LABYRINTH OF THE MINOTAUR

Indulging his whims, he distorted the appearance of the oldest palace in Europe, Knossos Palace, located on the island of Crete, depriving descendants of the opportunity to study the original ruins, and not an embellished “remake”. But it was Arthur Evans who discovered the European civilization of the Bronze Age to the world - the predecessor of Greece and Rome, the same age as Ancient Egypt and Babylon

The island of Crete, glorified in Greek myths and ancient poems, is located in the Aegean Sea between Greece, Egypt and Asia Minor. Zeus was allegedly born in one of his caves. Having led the Olympian gods, he defeated his father Chronos, and later, in the form of a golden-horned bull, he swam across the sea, kidnapped the beautiful Europa and took her to Crete. The son of Zeus and Europa, Minos, ruled Crete, and his wife Pasiphae became the mother of the Minotaur. This bloodthirsty man with the head of a bull lived in the Labyrinth Palace, the creation of the architect Daedalus, and feasted on young men and girls brought “to his table” by the inhabitants of the lands subject to Crete. The monster was killed by the son of the Athenian king Theseus, who was lucky enough to get out of the Labyrinth with the help of a ball given by Princess Ariadne. That's the myth. However, the mighty power of Minos existed not only in myths and legends. Homer mentions this king as a wise ruler who actually lived, and the Greek historian Thucydides in the 5th century BC. e. wrote that Minos created the Cretan navy, which dominated the Aegean Sea. During the archaeological excavations of the Englishman Arthur Evans in Crete, some of these legends seemed to have found unexpected confirmation, and with the sensational discovery of the legendary Troy by Heinrich Schliemann, the public ceased to be surprised by anything at all. Evans was not afraid to follow in the footsteps of the ridiculed and exalted Schliemann, who said that the great Homer did not invent Troy, but described a really existing city, the remains of which may well be found by archaeologists... if they are not too lazy to study the text of the Iliad. Evans' conclusions about the priority role of Crete in the development of European civilization aroused the rejection of scientists who considered ancient Greece to be one of a kind. But over time, it was Evans’ point of view, which became a textbook, and was included in all textbooks ancient history... The future explorer was born on July 8, 1851 on the Nash Mills estate in Hetfordshire, near London. The ancestors and relatives of Arthur Evans were poor, but educated people. Arthur's father, John Evans, began his career at the age of twelve at the paper mill of his uncle J. Dickenson. Marriage to cousin Harriet, the future mother of our hero, made the young man a full partner in family business. Harriet bore her husband five children and died in 1858.

John Evans was married twice more. He went down in history as a major British antiquarian and numismatist, an honorary member of many scientific societies and universities, an expert in Latin and the works of ancient authors. Evans Sr. is the author of monographs on the ancient stone and bronze tools of Britain, and the book “Coins of the Ancient British,” published in 1864 and considered a numismatic bestseller, brought him the highest award of the French Academy of Sciences. In 1892, John Evans was knighted by Queen Victoria for his services to science. His home in Nash Mills resembled a museum. Until his death (in 1908), his father provided financial support to Arthur, paying for his archaeological excavations in Crete. The eldest son, in turn, was a loving and caring brother to his younger brothers and sisters. One of them, Joanna, who became a famous British art historian, published a book dedicated to her brother, Time and Choice: The Story of Arthur Evans, in 1943. Arthur first came to the Balkans with his brother Llis in 1872. It was a real youthful escapade, full of risk and danger - both brothers had an adventurous character. They acquired a couple of pistols, but, apparently, did not acquire the necessary visas... Therefore, having first arrived in Pest quite openly, the Evanses quietly left the city, and having successfully avoided encounters with the police and border guards, made their way through the Carpathians to Romania, and then - to Bulgaria. The adventure remained without consequences, if you do not take into account that Arthur became seriously “ill” with the Balkans, and this predetermined his future fate for the next few years. Until 1874, the young man studied at Oxford, specializing in the issue of non-Muslim peoples being part of the Turkish Empire, but he never completed his studies. Having failed in an attempt to get a scholarship in the spring of 1875, he went to the University of Göttingen, where he attended a course of lectures in the summer semester, and then decided to devote himself to journalism, and not just anywhere, namely in the Balkans. In August 1875, during the Orthodox Serb uprising against Turkish occupation, the Evans brothers arrived in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Arthur described this trip in a book published a year later and presented to the British Prime Minister Gladstone. He sent Evans a letter of gratitude, and speaking in the British House of Commons on “ the eastern question” and speaking about the cruelty of the Turks, quoted passages from his book. Evans went to the Balkans again - this time as a correspondent for the Manchester Guardian newspaper. Having settled in Ragusa (Dubrovnik), he traveled to the centers of the uprising in Herzegovina and to the headquarters of the Turks in Bosnia. The “Balkan epic” continued until 1882, when the Austrian authorities arrested an energetic Briton on suspicion of espionage and participation in the uprising in Dalmatia...

Read the full version in Personality magazine No. 36

Arthur Evans was born on July 8, 1851 in Nash Mills, England. The boy's father was an industrialist and at the same time was engaged in archeology. The guy studied at the private school Harrow School, then at Oxford and Göttingen universities. After his studies he served as curator of the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford. Evans inherited his interest in antiquity and historical research from his father. The teenager was also interested in numismatics. One day a coin with a bull's head appeared in his collection. The coin’s homeland was supposedly the island of Crete, where Arthur subsequently decided to organize excavations.

Evans began excavations on March 23, 1900. He himself later said that he did not hope for major discoveries. Everything, however, was different. The archaeologist and his assistants had to verify this over the next few days. Literally a few hours later, the outlines of an ancient building appeared in the excavation. Two weeks later, an astonished Evans stood in front of the remains of buildings that covered an area of ​​two and a half hectares.

Evans devoted forty years to excavations in Crete, because he believed that the building he discovered was the ruins of the legendary mythological Labyrinth. Years passed, but there was no end to the work. More and more walls grew out of the ground, forming bizarre passages, complex system rooms, halls, courtyards, light wells, storerooms, and it was impossible to predict what the next swing of the shovel would reveal. Arthur identified several types of Cretan writing from the sources he found. Evans gave them the names "Cretan hieroglyphs", "Linear A" and "Linear B".

Reports about sensational excavations in Crete appeared in all newspapers and magazines in Europe. From the incomprehensible depths of millennia rose great civilization so ancient that already for Homer’s contemporaries it was a thousand-year-old legend. And when Evans, by right of the discoverer, gave this civilization the name “Minoan,” a name taken from the legend of King Minos, no one dared to challenge it.

In 1909, Arthur Evans was appointed professor of archeology at Oxford. Slowly but surely climbing the ladder of ranks in science, he finally managed to add “sir” to his name: in 1911 he was knighted. Evans received many awards, in particular in 1936 the Royal Society awarded him the Coplay Medal.

Arthur Evans Awards

Fellow of the Royal Society of London

Royal Golden medal (1909 )

Copley Medal (1936)

Medal of the Royal Numismatic Society

Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries

Fellow of the British Academy

Huntington Medal Award

In Memory of Arthur Evans

A voluminous modern biography of A. Evans was published in 2000 by Alexander MacGiliray.

In 2009, Kathy Geer's book Knossos and the Prophecies of Modernism was published. The main issue was the impact of the discovery of Minoan culture on the intellectual and artistic life of Europe. According to Nanno Marinatos, K. Geer consistently undermined the scientific credibility of Evans' work, based on psychoanalytic premises.

In 2015, N. Marinatos herself published the monograph “Sir Arthur Evans and Crete.” A significant place on the pages of the book was occupied by the fate of her father, Spyridon Marinatos, as well as the Gilleronovs and other people from Evans’ circle. According to the reviewer - John Papadopoulos - the researcher has done a lot to protect the legacy of Evans and his work.

In Greece and especially in Crete, Evans is one of the national heroes.

To commemorate his services, a bronze bust of the archaeologist was erected in the Western Courtyard of the Palace of Knossos.

A crater on the far side of the Moon was named in honor of Evans in 1970.