13. METHOD OF OBSERVATION AND SELF-OBSERVATION IN PSYCHOLOGY. EXPERIMENT IN PSYCHOLOGY Observation is a systematic and purposeful recording of psychological facts in the natural conditions of everyday life. There are certain requirements for the organization and conduct

12. Observation as a method of social psychology Observation is one of the oldest methods, consisting of the deliberate perception of phenomena environment for the purpose of collecting data of a certain kind. Differences between scientific observation and everyday observation: 1) purposefulness; 2) clear

15. Testing as a method of socio-psychological diagnostics Testing is a standardized, usually time-limited test, with the help of which the level of development or degree of expression of certain mental properties of an individual, group or

Testing “I got the highest score on testing”Testing is carried out in schools to compare the level of education of children of the same age group in Western countries. Parents are anxiously awaiting the announcement of grades. A “well-bred” child should not only be

Question No.10 . Method of tests in psychology (Gurevich Psychological diagnostics).

1. tests (which, in turn, are divided into several subclasses),

2.questionnaires, projective techniques and psychophysiological techniques.

In the literature, all methods for determining individual psychological differences are often called tests, and diagnostic manuals are called testology manuals. However, in their psychological essence, tests and, for example, questionnaires are very different from each other. Techniques of a projective nature are also a special tool, not similar to any of the above. Therefore, for a better understanding of what diagnostics provides, they should be separated from each other by name. Psychophysiological techniques should occupy a special place in this classification. These are original diagnostic tools that originated in our country.

Tests

Tests (translated from English as “test”, “check”, “sample”) are standardized and usually short and time-limited tests designed to establish quantitative and qualitative individual psychological differences between people. Their distinctive feature is that they consist of tasks for which the subject needs to get the correct answer. There are no correct answers in questionnaires, projective and psychophysiological methods.

Tests can be classified into several subclasses depending on which feature is taken as the basis for division. The most significant classifications of tests are by form and content.

Psychological testing form

The form of tests can be individual and group, oral and written; forms, subject, hardware and computer; verbal and non-verbal (practical).

Individual and group (collective) tests. Individual tests are a type of technique where the interaction between the experimenter and the subject occurs one-on-one. Individual testing has its advantages: the ability to observe the subject (his facial expressions, involuntary reactions), hear and record statements not provided for in the instructions, which allows one to assess the attitude towards the examination, note the functional state of the subject, etc. In addition, based on the level of preparedness of the subject, it is possible As the experiment progresses, replace one test with another. Individual diagnostics are necessary when working with children of infant and preschool age, in clinical psychology - for testing persons with somatic or neuropsychic disorders, people with physical disabilities, etc. It is also necessary in cases where close contact between the experimenter and the subject is needed in order to optimize his activity. However, individual tests, as a rule, require a lot of time to conduct the experiment, and in this sense are less economical than group ones.

Group tests- this is a type of technique that allows you to simultaneously conduct tests with a very large group of people (up to several hundred people). Since the instructions and procedure are developed in detail, the experimenter must strictly follow them. During group testing, the uniformity of experimental conditions is especially strictly observed. Processing of results is objectified and does not require high qualifications. The results of most group tests can be processed on a computer.

However, certain disadvantages of group testing should be noted. Thus, the experimenter has much less opportunity to establish rapport with the subject, arouse his interest and enlist his cooperation. Any random conditions of the subject, such as illness, fatigue, restlessness and anxiety, which may affect task performance, are much more difficult to identify in group testing. In general, individuals unfamiliar with the procedure are more likely to perform lower in group testing than in individual testing. Therefore, in cases where the decision made based on the test results is important for the subject, it is advisable to supplement the results of group testing either with individual verification of unclear cases or with information obtained from other sources.

Oral and written tests. These tests differ in the form of the answer. Individual tests are most often oral, and group tests are written. Oral answers in some cases can be formulated by the subject independently (“open” answers), in others he must choose from several proposed answers and name the one he considers correct (“closed” answers). In written tests, the answers are given to the test taker either in a test book or on a specially designed answer sheet. Written responses can also be “open” or “closed” in nature.

Blank, subject, hardware, computer tests. These tests differ in the material used in testing. Blank tests (another commonly known name is the “pencil and paper” test) are presented in the form of separate forms or notebooks, brochures that contain instructions for use, example solutions, the tasks themselves and answer columns. There are forms where the answers are entered not in test notebooks, but on separate forms. This allows you to use the same test books over and over again. Blank tests can be used for both individual and group testing.

In subject tests, the material of test tasks is presented in the form of real objects: cubes, cards, parts of geometric shapes, structures and assemblies of technical devices, etc. Subject tests are often administered individually.

Hardware tests are a type of technique that requires the use of special technical means or special equipment to conduct research or record the data obtained. Instruments for studying reaction time indicators (reactometers, reflexometers), devices for studying the characteristics of perception, memory, and thinking are widely known. IN recent years hardware tests widely use computer devices. In most cases, hardware tests are carried out individually.

Computer tests. This is an automated type of testing in the form of a dialogue between the subject and the computer. Test tasks are presented on the display screen, and the test taker enters the answers into the computer memory from the keyboard; thus, the protocol is immediately created as a data set (file) on a magnetic medium. Standard statistical packages make it possible to very quickly carry out mathematical and statistical processing of the results obtained in various areas. If desired, you can obtain information in the form of graphs, tables, diagrams, profiles.

With the help of a computer, the experimenter receives for analysis such data that is almost impossible to obtain without a computer: the time for completing individual test tasks, the time for obtaining correct answers, the number of refusals and requests for help, the time spent by the subject thinking about the answer when refusing a decision, the input time answer (if it is complex) in a computer, etc. These characteristics of the subjects can be used for an in-depth psychological analysis of the results obtained during the testing process.

Verbal And nonverbal tests. These tests differ in the nature of the stimulus material. In verbal tests, the main content of the test subjects' work is operations with concepts, mental actions carried out in a verbal-logical form.

The tasks that make up these techniques appeal to memory, imagination, and thinking in their mediated linguistic form. They are very sensitive to differences in linguistic culture, level of education, and professional characteristics. The verbal type of tasks is most common among intelligence tests, achievement tests, and when assessing special abilities.

Nonverbal tests are a type of methodology in which the test material is presented in visual form (in the form of pictures, drawings, graphics, etc.). Subjects are required to understand verbal instructions, and the task execution itself relies on perceptual and motor functions. The most famous nonverbal test is the Raven's Progressive Matrices. Nonverbal tests reduce the impact of language differences on test performance. They also facilitate testing for subjects with speech or hearing impairments or low levels of education. Nonverbal tests are widely used in assessing spatial and combinatorial thinking. As separate subtests, they are included in many tests of intelligence, general and special abilities, and achievement tests.

Intelligence tests. Designed for research and measurement of age-related intellectual development of a person. They are the most common psychodiagnostic techniques. Intelligence as an object of measurement does not mean any manifestations of individuality, but primarily those that relate to educational processes and functions (thinking, memory, attention, perception). In form, intelligence tests can be group and individual, oral and written, form-based, subject-based and computer-based. Each task of such tests has a correct solution and, therefore, the success of their completion is judged by the number of correct or incorrect answers. Over the past 30-35 years, verbal criterion-based intelligence tests have been successfully developed. Their fundamental difference from traditional tests is that in tasks in which the test taker must find his own solution to a certain logical problem, not any concepts and terms are used, but only those that make up the content of the training programs. The inclusion of such concepts and terms makes it possible to establish the extent to which they have become the subject of students’ mental activity.

Aptitude tests. This is a type of technique designed to evaluate opportunities individual in mastering knowledge, skills, abilities in various areas- mathematics, technology, literature, in various types of artistic activities.

It is customary to distinguish between general and special abilities. General abilities provide mastery of different types of activities and skills that a person implements in many types of activities. General abilities are identified with intelligence, and therefore they are often called general intellectual (mental) abilities.

In contrast to general abilities, special abilities are considered in relation to individual, special areas of activity. In accordance with this division, tests of general and special abilities are developed.

Ability tests are varied in form (individual and group, oral and written, form, subject, instrumental, etc.). The test subjects' answers here are also assessed according to the type of correct or incorrect.

Personality tests. These psychodiagnostic techniques are aimed at assessing the emotional and volitional components of mental activity - motivation, interests, emotions, relationships (including interpersonal ones), as well as the characteristics of an individual’s behavior in certain situations. Thus, personality tests diagnose non-intellectual manifestations of subjects.

Personality tests can be divided into action tests and situational tests. Action tests are relatively simple, clearly structured procedures in which a correct response is possible (for example, the masked figures test Witkina, rigidity test Luchinsa etc.).

A special feature of situational tests is that the subject is asked to choose a way of behavior in a complex social situation that is close to the real one. With their help, they diagnose, in particular, such aspects of personality as a tendency to antisocial behavior, as well as to stable, sustainable decisions and actions.

Non-intellectual personality traits are also measured using questionnaires and projective techniques. These diagnostic techniques are discussed in the relevant sections of the manual.

Achievement tests, or, as they can be called differently, tests for objective control of success (school, professional, sports), are intended to assess the degree of advancement of knowledge, skills, and abilities after a person has completed appropriate training, general and professional training. Thus, achievement tests primarily measure the impact that a relatively standard set of influences has on an individual's development. They are widely used to assess school, educational, and professional achievements. This explains their large number and diversity. Just like in intelligence tests, these tests assume the correct answer, and the indicator of success is the number of correctly completed tasks.

School achievement tests are mainly group and form based, but can also be presented in a computer version. Vocational achievement tests typically take three different forms: instrumented (performance or action tests), written, and oral.

Software testing is the evaluation of the software/product being developed to check its capabilities, capabilities and compliance with expected results. There are various types methods used in the field of testing and quality assurance will be discussed in this article.

Software testing is an integral part of the software development cycle.

What is software testing?

Software testing is nothing but testing a piece of code to controlled and uncontrolled operating conditions, observing the output, and then examining whether it meets predefined conditions.

Various sets of test cases and testing strategies are aimed at achieving one common goal - eliminating bugs and errors in the code, and ensuring accurate and optimal software performance.

Testing methodology

Widely used testing methods are unit testing, integration testing, acceptance testing, and system testing. The software undergoes these tests in a specific order.

3) System testing

4) Acceptance tests

First of all, a unit test is carried out. As the name suggests, this is an object-level testing method. Individual software components are tested for errors. This test requires precise knowledge of the program and each installed module. Thus, this check is carried out by programmers, not testers. To do this, test codes are created that check whether the software behaves as intended.

Individual modules that have already been unit tested are integrated with each other and checked for faults. This type of testing primarily identifies interface errors. Integration testing can be done using a top-down approach, following architectural structure systems. Another approach is the bottom-up approach, which is implemented from the bottom of the control flow.

System testing

In this testing, the entire system is checked for errors and bugs. This test is carried out by pairing the hardware and software components of the entire system and then testing it. This testing is classified under the black box testing method, where the user's expected operating conditions of the software are tested.

Acceptance tests

This is the last test that is carried out before the software is released to the client. It is carried out to ensure that the software that has been developed meets all customer requirements. There are two types of acceptance testing - one that is carried out by members of the development team is known as internal acceptance testing (Alpha testing) and the other that is carried out by the customer is known as external acceptance testing.

When testing is done with prospective clients, it is called client acceptance testing. When testing is carried out by the end user of the software, it is known as acceptance testing (beta testing).

There are several basic testing techniques that form part of the software testing regime. These tests are usually considered self-sufficient in finding errors and bugs in the entire system.

Black box testing

Black box testing is done without any knowledge internal work systems. The tester will drive the software to the user environment by providing various inputs and testing the generated outputs. This test is also known as Black-box testing, closed-box testing or functional testing.

White box testing

White box testing, as opposed to black box testing, takes into account the internal functioning and logic of the code. To perform this test, the tester must have knowledge of the code to know the exact part of the code that has errors. This test is also known as White-box, Open-Box or Glass box testing.

Gray box testing

Gray box testing or Gray box testing is something between White Box and Black Box testing, where the tester has only the general knowledge of the product necessary to perform the test. This verification is carried out through documentation and information flow diagrams. Testing is performed by the end user, or users who appear to be end users.

Non-functional tests

Application security is one of the main tasks of the developer. Security testing tests software for confidentiality, integrity, authentication, availability, and non-repudiation. Individual testing is carried out to prevent unauthorized access to the program code.

Stress testing is a technique in which software is exposed to conditions that are outside the normal operating conditions of the software. After reaching the critical point, the results obtained are recorded. This test determines the stability of the entire system.

The software is tested for compatibility with external interfaces such as operating systems, hardware platforms, web browsers, etc. A compatibility test checks whether a product is compatible with any software platform.

As the name suggests, this testing technique tests the amount of code or resources that a program uses when performing a single operation.

This testing checks the usability and practicality aspect of the software for the users. The ease with which the user can access the device forms the main testing point. Usability testing covers five aspects of testing - learning, efficiency, satisfaction, memorability, and errors.

Tests during software development

The waterfall model uses a top-down approach, whether it is used for software development or testing.

The main steps involved in this software testing methodology are:

• Needs Analysis
• Design test
• Implementation test
• Testing, debugging and reviewing code or product
• Implementation and maintenance

In this technique, you move on to the next step only after you have completed the previous one. The model uses a non-iterative approach. The main advantage of this technique is its simplified, systematic and orthodox approach. However, it has many disadvantages, since bugs and errors in the code will not be detected until the testing stage. This can often result in wasted time, money, and other valuable resources.

Agile Model

This methodology is based on a selective combination of sequential and iterative approaches, in addition to a fairly large variety of new development methods. Rapid and progressive development is one of the key principles of this methodology. The emphasis is on obtaining quick, practical, and visible outputs. Continuous customer interaction and participation is an integral part of the entire development process.

Rapid Application Development (RAD). Rapid Application Development Methodology

The name speaks for itself. In this case, the methodology takes a rapid evolutionary approach, using the principle of component design. After understanding the various requirements of a given project, a rapid prototype is prepared and then compared with the expected set of output conditions and standards. Necessary changes and modifications are made after joint discussion with the customer or development team (in the context of software testing).

While this approach has its share of advantages, it may not be appropriate if the project is large, complex, or has an extremely dynamic nature in which requirements are constantly changing.

Spiral model

As the name suggests, the spiral model is based on an approach in which there are a number of cycles (or spirals) from all the successive steps in a cascade model. Once the initial cycle is completed, a thorough analysis and review of the achieved product or output is performed. If the output does not meet the specified requirements or expected standards, a second cycle is performed, and so on.

Rational Unified Process (RUP). Rational Unified Process

The RUP technique is also similar to the spiral model in the sense that the entire testing procedure is broken down into several cycles. Each cycle consists of four stages - creation, development, construction, and transition. At the end of each cycle, the product/output is reviewed and the cycle (consisting of the same four phases) is followed as necessary.

Application information technology is growing every day, and the importance of proper software testing has also grown exponentially. Many companies maintain special teams for this purpose, whose capabilities are at the level of developers.