Reforms of Peter the Great

Introduction

Chapter 1. Prerequisites for Peter's reforms

1.1. The socio-economic situation in the country before Peter’s reforms

External prerequisites for Peter's reforms

Chapter 2. State reforms of Peter 1

2.1. Reforms of public authorities

Church reform

Chapter 3. Military reforms of the first quarter of the 18th century

Army reforms

Fleet reforms

Conclusion

List of used literature

Chapter 2. State reforms of Peter 1

2.1. Reforms of public authorities

Of all the transformations of Peter I, the central place is occupied by the reform of public administration, the reorganization of all its links.

The system of power inherited by Peter I did not allow raising enough funds to reorganize and increase the army, build a fleet, build fortresses and St. Petersburg, which was required to wage wars.

IN early XVIII V. Meetings of the Boyar Duma actually cease, management of the central and local state apparatus passes to the “Concilia of Ministers” - a temporary council of heads of the most important government departments, organized in 1699. It consisted of 8 proxies. A certain mode of work was established in the Consilium: each minister had special powers, reports and minutes of meetings appeared.

In 1711, instead of the Boyar Duma and the Council that replaced it, the Senate was established.

He occupied a key position in Peter's state system. The Senate, consisting of 9 people, created by Peter for the current administration of the state during his absence (at that time the tsar was going on the Prut campaign), turned from temporary into a permanent supreme government institution, which was enshrined in the Decree of 1722. He controlled justice, was in charge of trade, fees and expenses of the state, monitored the orderly performance of military service by the nobles, was in charge of colleges and provinces, appointed and approved officials, and the functions of the Rank and Ambassadorial orders were transferred to him.

Decisions in the Senate were made collegially, on general meeting and were supported by the signatures of all members of the highest government body. If one of the 9 senators refused to sign the decision, the decision was considered invalid. Thus, Peter I delegated part of his powers to the Senate, but at the same time imposed personal responsibility on its members.

The Senate, as a government, could make decisions, but they required an administrative apparatus to carry them out. In 1717-1721, a reform of the executive bodies of government was carried out, as a result of which the outdated system of orders was replaced by collegiums. In contrast to orders, the functions and spheres of activity of each board were strictly demarcated, and relations within the board itself were built on the principle of collegiality of decisions. 11 boards were introduced:

Collegium of foreign (foreign) affairs.

Military Collegium - recruitment, armament, equipment and training of the ground army.

Admiralty Collegium - naval affairs, fleet.

Kamor collegium - collection of state revenues.

The State Board of Directors was in charge of state expenses,

The Audit Board controls the collection and expenditure of government funds.

Commerce Board - issues of shipping, customs and foreign trade.

Berg College - mining and metallurgy.

Manufactory Collegium - light industry.

The College of Justice was in charge of issues of civil proceedings (the Serfdom Office operated under it: it registered various acts - bills of sale, the sale of estates, spiritual wills, debt obligations).

The Spiritual College - managed church affairs (later the Holy Governing Synod).

All boards were subordinate to the Senate.

In 1721, the Patrimonial Collegium was formed - it was in charge of noble land ownership (land litigation, transactions for the purchase and sale of land and peasants, and the search for fugitives were considered). In 1720, the Chief Magistrate was formed as a collegium to govern the city population. On February 28, 1720, the General Regulations introduced a uniform system of office work in the state apparatus for the entire country.

Simultaneously with the Senate, the position of fiscals appeared to monitor the implementation of local decisions and reduce endemic corruption. Fiscal officials were supposed to “secretly inspect, report and expose” all abuses of both high and low officials, pursue embezzlement, bribery, and accept denunciations from private individuals. At the head of the fiscals was the chief fiscal, appointed by the king and subordinate to him. The duty of the chief fiscal officer under the Senate was to secretly supervise the activities of institutions: cases of violation of decrees and abuses were identified and reported to the Senate and the Tsar. Denunciations were considered and reported monthly to the Senate by the Execution Chamber - a special judicial presence of four judges and two senators (existed in 1712-1719). Since 1715, the work of the Senate was supervised by the Auditor General, who in 1718 was renamed Chief Secretary. In 1719-1723 The fiscals were subordinate to the College of Justice, and with the establishment in January 1722, the positions of the Prosecutor General were supervised by him. Since 1723, the chief fiscal officer was the fiscal general, appointed by the sovereign, his assistant was the chief fiscal, appointed by the Senate, and the prosecutors of all other institutions were subordinate to them. In this regard, the fiscal service left the subordination of the Justice College and regained departmental independence. The vertical of fiscal control was brought to the city level.

In 1708-1715, a regional reform was carried out with the aim of strengthening the vertical of power at the local level and better providing the army with supplies and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors vested with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingria (later St. Petersburg), Kyiv, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberian. The Moscow province provided more than a third of revenues to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.

The governors were in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province. In 1710, new administrative units appeared - shares, uniting 5,536 households. The first regional reform did not solve the set tasks, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the costs of their maintenance.

In 1719-1720, a second regional reform was carried out, eliminating shares. The provinces began to be divided into 50 provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts headed by zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Board. Only military and judicial matters remained under the governor's jurisdiction.

As a result of public administration reforms, the establishment of an absolute monarchy, as well as the bureaucratic system on which the emperor relied, ended.

Estate reforms

Peter's goal was to create a powerful noble state. To do this, it was necessary to disseminate knowledge among the nobles, improve their culture, and make the nobility prepared and suitable for achieving the goals that Peter set for himself. Peter sought to ensure that all the nobility considered “sovereign service” their honorable right, their calling, to skillfully rule the country and command the troops. To do this, it was necessary first of all to spread education among the nobles. Peter established a new duty for the nobles - educational: from 10 to 15 years of age, the nobleman had to learn “literacy, numbers and geometry”, and then had to go to serve. Without a certificate of “training,” a nobleman was not given “eternal memory”—permission to marry.

Decrees of 1712, 1714 and 1719 a procedure was established according to which “birth” was not taken into account when appointing to a position and serving. And vice versa, those who came from the people, the most gifted, active, and devoted to the cause of Peter, had the opportunity to receive any military or civilian rank.

As a result, a new structure of society emerged, in which the class character was more clearly formed. The rights of the nobility were expanded and the responsibilities of the nobility were defined, and, at the same time, the serfdom of the peasants was strengthened.

Nobility

New system management expanded the scope and forms of service of the nobles, which caused his dissatisfaction. Peter I transferred all nobles and servicemen to regular service. Military affairs, which in Moscow times was the duty of a narrow class of service people, is now becoming the duty of all segments of the population.

All previous categories of service people were united together into one class - the nobility. All lower ranks could equally rise to higher ranks. The order of such length of service was precisely defined by the Decree of 1721. “Table of ranks.” In the “Table”, all ranks were distributed into 14 ranks or “ranks” according to their service seniority. Upon reaching the eighth grade, any official or military man could receive the status of hereditary nobility. Thus, a person’s career depended primarily not on his origin, but on his achievements in public service. The “Table of Ranks” replaced the principle of birth with the principle of length of service and suitability for service. But Peter made one concession to the people from the old nobility. He allowed noble youth to enroll primarily in his favorite guards regiments Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky. The place of the former boyars was taken by the “generals”, consisting of ranks of the first four classes of the “Table of Ranks”. Personal service mixed up representatives of the former family nobility with people raised by service.

In 1706, a Decree on Education was issued: boyar children must receive either primary school or home education. Peter demanded that the nobles be required to learn literacy and mathematics, and deprived those who were not trained of the right to marry and receive an officer rank.

Peter limited the landowning rights of the nobles. He stopped giving them estates from the treasury upon entering the service, but provided them with a cash salary. It was forbidden to split up noble estates and estates when transferring them to sons. In 1714, a Decree on Single Inheritance was issued: a landowner with sons could bequeath all his real estate to only one of them of his choice. The rest were obliged to serve. The decree marked the final merger of the noble estate and the boyar estate, thereby finally erasing the difference between the two classes of feudal lords.

On February 5, 1722, due to the absence of an heir, Peter I decides to issue an order on succession to the throne, in which he reserves the right to appoint an heir for himself.

Peasantry

Peter's reforms changed the situation of the peasants. From different categories of peasants who were not in serfdom from the landowners or the church (black-growing peasants of the north, non-Russian nationalities, etc.), a new unified category of state peasants was formed - personally free, but paying dues to the state.

State peasants in the 18th century had the rights of personally free people (they could own property, act in court as one of the parties, elect representatives to estate bodies, etc.), but were limited in movement and could be (until the beginning of the 19th century, when this category is finally approved as free people) transferred by the monarch to the category of serfs.

Legislative acts concerning the serf peasantry themselves were of a contradictory nature. Thus, the intervention of landowners in the marriage of serfs was limited (a decree of 1724), it was forbidden to present serfs as defendants in court and to hold them on the right for the debts of the owner. The norm was also confirmed that the estates of landowners who were ruining their peasants should be transferred into trusteeship, and the peasants were given the opportunity to enroll as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom (by a decree of Emperor Elizabeth on July 2, 1742, the peasants were deprived of this opportunity).

At the same time, measures against runaway peasants were significantly tightened, large masses of palace peasants were distributed to private individuals, and landowners were allowed to recruit serfs. The imposition of a capitation tax on serfs (that is, personal servants without land) led to the merging of serfs with serfs. Church peasants were subordinated to the monastic order and removed from the authority of the monasteries.

Under Peter, a new category of dependent farmers was created - peasants assigned to manufactories. In the 18th century, these peasants were called possession farmers. A decree of 1721 allowed nobles and merchant manufacturers to buy peasants to manufactories to work for them. The peasants bought into the factory were not considered the property of its owners, but were attached to production, so that the owner of the factory could neither sell nor mortgage the peasants separately from the manufacture. Possession peasants received a fixed salary and performed a fixed amount of work.

Urban population

Before Peter, the urban estate constituted a very small and poor class. Peter wanted to create in Russia an urban economically strong and active class, similar to what he saw in Western Europe. Peter expanded city government. In 1720, a chief magistrate was created, who was supposed to take care of the urban class. All cities were divided into classes according to the number of inhabitants. City residents were divided into “regular” and “irregular” (“mean”) citizens. Regular citizens made up two “guilds”: the first included representatives of capital and the intelligentsia, the second included small traders and artisans. Craftsmen were divided into “guilds” according to their crafts. Irregular people or “mean” were called laborers. The difference between the urban regular citizen of the end of Peter's reign and the irregular citizen was that the regular citizen participated in city government by electing members of the magistrate and was enrolled in the guild and workshop. In addition, city affairs were discussed at town hall meetings or councils of regular citizens. Each city was subordinate to the chief magistrate, bypassing any other local authorities.

So, at the end of the reign of Peter the Great, a lot changed in the life of the classes. The nobles began to serve differently. The townspeople received a new device and benefits. The peasantry began to pay differently and merged with the serfs on private lands. And the state continued to look at the estates in the same way as before. It defined their lives as a duty, not a right. All subjects lived not for themselves, but “for the sovereign and the zemstvo’s cause,” and were supposed to be an obedient instrument in the hands of the state.

2.3 Church reform

One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church administration that he carried out, aimed at eliminating the church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian hierarchy to the Emperor. In 1700 Patriarch Adrian died, and Peter I forbade electing a successor for him. The management of the church was entrusted to Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan, who received the new title of “Guardian of the Patriarchal Throne” or “Exarch”.

To manage the property of the patriarchal and bishop's houses, as well as monasteries, including the peasants belonging to them (approximately 795 thousand), the Monastic Order was restored, headed by I. A. Musin-Pushkin, who again began to be in charge of the trial of the monastic peasants and control income from church and monastic landholdings.

In 1721, the patriarchate was abolished, and the “Holy Governing Synod,” or Spiritual Collegium, subordinate to the Senate, was created to govern the church. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath to him upon taking office.

Peter approved the Spiritual Regulations, the drafting of which was entrusted to the Pskov bishop, close to the Tsar, Feofan Prokopovich. As a result, a radical reform of the church took place, eliminating the autonomy of the clergy and completely subordinating it to the state.

Church reform meant the elimination of the independent political role of the church. It turned into an integral part of the bureaucratic apparatus of the absolutist state. Peter widely used the institutions of the church to carry out police policies, strengthened control over church income and systematically seized a significant part of it for the needs of the treasury.

Thus, church reform played a very important role in the formation of absolutism in Russia

Chapter 3. Military reforms of the first quarter of the 18th century

3.3 Army reforms

Military reforms occupy a special place among the transformations of Peter the Great. Military reforms were also extremely important because they had a huge, often decisive, influence on all aspects of the life of the state. Their course was largely determined by constant wars (during the 36-year period of the reign of Peter I, only a few peaceful years can be counted).

Their main idea was to eliminate noble militias and create a permanent, combat-ready army with a uniform structure, weapons, uniforms, discipline and regulations.

The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, which grew out of the childhood fun of the young tsar, became the first regiments of the new Russian army, built with the help of foreigners according to the European model. Reforming the army and creating a navy became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War of 1700-1721.

During this period, a radical reorganization of the armed forces took place. A powerful regular army is being created in Russia and, in connection with this, the local noble militia and the Streltsy army are being eliminated. When creating a regular army, the Russian government had to decide on its size, methods of recruitment and forms of warfare. At the same time, it was necessary to rebuild the system of supplying troops with weapons, ammunition and food, as well as organize combat training of troops, and introduce a new command and control system.

The Russian army consisted of three types of troops: infantry, artillery and cavalry. In addition, the garrison troops numbered about 70 thousand people, the militia - 6 thousand, and 105 thousand - Cossacks and other irregular units. The basis of the army began to consist of regular infantry and cavalry regiments with a uniform staff, uniforms, and weapons, which carried out combat training in accordance with general army regulations.

Before Peter, the army consisted of two main parts - the noble militia and various semi-regular formations (streltsy, Cossacks, foreign regiments). The revolutionary change was that Peter introduced a new principle of recruiting the army - periodic convocations of the militia were replaced by systematic conscription. The recruitment system was based on the class-serf principle. Recruitment sets extended to the population who paid taxes and carried out state duties. In preparation for the Northern War, Peter ordered in 1699 to carry out a general recruitment and begin training soldiers according to the model established by the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovtsy. Already in the first year, Peter formed, in addition to two guards regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky - 29 infantry and 2 dragoons. In 1705, every 20 households had to put up one recruit, a single guy aged 15 to 20, for lifelong service (however, during the Northern War, these terms were constantly changing due to a shortage of soldiers and sailors. Subsequently, recruits began to be taken from a certain number male souls among the peasants. Recruits from the tax-paying classes in the army became equal to the noble soldiers, learned uniform military equipment, and the entire mass of servicemen formed a single army, which in its fighting qualities was not inferior to European troops.

From 1699 to 1725 53 recruitments were carried out, giving the army and navy more than 280 thousand people. Recruits underwent military training and received government-issued weapons and uniforms. “Willing people” from free peasants were also recruited into the army with a salary of 11 rubles a year.

In accordance with the recruitment system, the soldiers of the field army and garrison troops were formed from peasants and other tax-paying classes, and the officer corps - exclusively from nobles. For the training of officers, the military-practical school of officers for army regiments, the Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky guards regiments, as well as special schools- navigation, artillery, engineering, admiralty, etc. If at first among the officers there were mainly foreign specialists, then after the start of work of the navigation, artillery, and engineering schools, the growth of the army was satisfied by Russian officers from the noble class.

The Tsar's decree of February 26, 1714 prohibited the promotion to officers of nobles who did not serve as soldiers in the guards regiments.

In 1716, the Military Regulations of Peter I were published, which consisted of 68 chapters and determined the order of military service, the rules of relations between military personnel, the military criminal system, the system of military ranks, the judicial system and many other issues. Officer training was carried out in two military schools - Bombardier (artillery) and Preobrazhenskaya (infantry). Subsequently, Peter opened naval, engineering, medical and other military schools, which allowed him, at the end of his reign, to completely refuse to invite foreign officers to Russian service.

The weapons of the Russian army were improved. The development of metallurgy contributed to a significant increase in the production of artillery pieces; outdated artillery of different calibers was replaced by new types of guns. For the first time in the army, bladed weapons and firearms were combined - a bayonet was attached to the gun, which significantly increased the fire and striking power of the army. First-class domestic artillery was created. In the army under Peter I, a qualitatively new weapon was used for the first time, when a bayonet was attached to the gun, which significantly increased the effectiveness of infantry in battle.

As a result of the transformations, a strong regular army was created. By the end of Peter's reign, the number of regular ground forces reached 210 thousand (of which 2,600 were in the guard, 41,550 in cavalry, 75 thousand in infantry, 74 thousand in garrisons) and up to 110 thousand irregular troops.

3.2 Fleet reforms

Peter I paid great attention to the fleet. He personally compiled in 1720 Marine charter, where it was written “Only that sovereign has both hands who has both a land army and a fleet.”

In addition, the reforms of Peter I were guided by the conditions of his time. The starting point for the fleet reforms was Azov campaigns (1695-1696).

In 1695, Russian troops besieged Azov (a Turkish fortress at the mouth of the Don), but due to a lack of weapons and the absence of a fleet, Azov was not captured. Realizing this, Peter, with his characteristic energy, set about building a fleet. It was decided to organize Kumpanstvos (companies) - associations of secular and spiritual landowners who would be engaged in the construction of ships. The fleet was built on the Voronezh River at its confluence with the Don. The construction of the fleet was carried out at an unprecedentedly fast pace at the level of the best examples of military shipbuilding of that time.

In 1696 the Russians naval forces won the first victory - Azov was taken.

With the outbreak of the Northern War, the focus shifts to the Baltic, and with the founding of St. Petersburg, shipbuilding is carried out almost exclusively there. By 1725, the Baltic fleet consisted of 32 battleships armed with 50 to 96 cannons each, 16 frigates, 85 galleys and many other smaller ships. The total number of Russian military sailors was about 30 thousand. The Baltic Fleet in the 30s of the 18th century became the most powerful Russian fleet.

Recruitment into the navy, as into the army, was carried out from recruits.

The fleet consisted of 48 battleships; galleys and other vessels 787; There were almost 30 thousand people on all ships. 28 thousand people were in service.

By the end of Peter's reign, Russia had become one of the strongest naval powers in the world, having 48 ships of the line and 788 galleys and other ships.

The main results of Peter the Great’s military reforms are as follows: – the creation of a combat-ready regular army, one of the strongest in the world, which gave Russia the opportunity to fight its main opponents and defeat them; – the emergence of a whole galaxy of talented commanders (Alexander Menshikov, Boris Sheremetev, Fyodor Apraksin, Yakov Bruce, etc.); – creation of a powerful navy; – a gigantic increase in military expenditures and covering them through the most brutal squeezing of funds from the people.

For all connoisseurs of Russian history, the name of Peter 1 will forever remain associated with the period of reform in almost all spheres of life Russian society. And one of the most important in this series was military reform.

Peter the Great fought throughout the entire period of his reign. All his military campaigns were directed against serious opponents - Sweden and Turkey. And to carry on endless grueling, and besides, offensive wars We need a well-equipped, combat-ready army. Actually, the need to create such an army was main reason military reforms of Peter the Great. The process of transformation was not immediate; each stage took place in its own time and was caused by certain events during the hostilities.

It cannot be said that the tsar began reforming the army from scratch. Rather, he continued and expanded the military innovations conceived by his father Alexei Mikhailovich.

So, let's look at the military reforms of Peter 1 briefly point by point:

Reform of the Streltsy army

In 1697, the Streltsy regiments, which were the basis of the army, were disbanded and subsequently completely abolished. They were simply not ready to conduct constant hostilities. In addition, the Streltsy riots undermined the tsar’s trust in them. Instead of the archers, three new regiments were formed in 1699, which were staffed by also disbanded foreign regiments and recruits.

Introduction of conscription

In 1699, a new system of army recruitment was introduced in the country - conscription. Initially, recruitment was carried out only as needed and was regulated by special decrees, which stipulated the currently required number of recruits. Their service was for life. The basis of recruitment was the tax-paying classes of peasants and townspeople. The new system made it possible to create a large standing army in the country, which had a significant advantage over European mercenary troops.

Changing the military training system

Since 1699, the training of soldiers and officers began to be carried out according to a single drill code. The emphasis was on constant military training. The first one was opened in 1700 military school for officers, and in 1715 - the Naval Academy in St. Petersburg.

Changes in the organizational structure of the army

The army was officially divided into three branches: infantry, artillery and cavalry. The entire structure of the new army and navy was reduced to uniformity: brigades, regiments, divisions. The administration of army affairs was transferred to the jurisdiction of four orders. Since 1718, the Military Collegium has become the highest military body.

In 1722, the Table of Ranks was created, which clearly structured the system of military ranks.

Army rearmament

Peter I began to arm the infantry with flintlock rifles with a single caliber bayonet and swords. Under him, new types of artillery pieces and ammunition were developed. New types of ships were created.

As a result of the military reforms of Peter the Great, rapid economic growth began in Russia. After all, in order to provide such an army colossus, new steel and weapons factories and ammunition factories were needed. As a result, by 1707 the state’s dependence on the import of weapons from Europe was completely eliminated.

The main results of the reform were the creation of a large and well-trained army, which allowed Russia to begin active military competition with Europe and emerge victorious.

Peter 1. Beginning of reforms

Peter 1 began to change the foundations and orders in Russia as soon as he returned from Europe in 1698, where he traveled as part of the Great Embassy.

Literally the very next day, Peter 1 began cutting off the beards of the boyars; decrees were issued demanding that all subjects of the Russian Tsar shave their beards; the decrees did not apply only to the lower class. Those who did not want to shave their beards had to pay a tax, which reduced the grumbling of the classes and was profitable for the treasury. Following the beards, it was the turn to reform traditional Russian clothing; long-skirted and long-sleeved clothes began to be replaced with short camisoles of the Polish and Hungarian style.

Before the end of the century, Peter 1 created a new printing house in Moscow, and began printing textbooks on arithmetic, astronomy, literature and history. The education system was completely reformed and developed by Peter 1, the first mathematical schools were opened.

The calendar was also reformed, New Year, calculated from the creation of the world and celebrated on September 1, began to be celebrated on January 1, on the Nativity of Christ.

Peter by his decree approved the first Russian order, the Order of St. Andrew the First-Called. Peter 1 began to conduct all meetings with foreign ambassadors personally and signed all international documents himself.

By personal decree of Peter 1, the system of civil administration was reformed, a central governing body was created in Moscow - the Town Hall, in other cities in 1699, zemstvo huts were created for local government. Peter 1 reformed the system of orders; as of September 1699, there were more than 40 orders - ministries. Peter 1 eliminated some orders, and began to unite others under the control of one boss. The Church also underwent reforms, and I.A. was placed at the head of the Monastic Order in charge of church property. Musin-Pushkin, a secular man. Due to the church reform in 1701-1710, the treasury received more than a million rubles received from church taxes.

The reforms had been brewing for a long time, but until the Battle of Poltava, Peter 1 decided pressing problems as they arise, giving orders to solve problems as they arise. Instead of state acts regulating certain aspects of the life of the state, Peter 1 wrote a written order for each problem, indicating who should solve it and how. Not system management led to problems in Russian state, there was not enough money for the essentials, arrears increased, the army and navy could not fully obtain the supplies necessary to wage war.

Before the Battle of Poltava, Peter 1 issued only two acts; the first act, dated January 30, 1699, restored zemstvo institutions; the second act, dated December 18, 1708, divided the state into provinces. Only after the defeat of the Swedish army near Poltava did Peter 1 have time and the opportunity to engage in reforms and arrangement of the state. As time has shown, the reforms carried out by Peter 1 put Russia on par with European states not only in military terms, but also economically.

Carrying out reforms was vital for the survival and development of the state, but it would be a mistake to think that Peter 1 carried out reforms in individual sectors and areas. Having begun to create an army and navy, Peter 1 had to link the changes with the social, economic and political aspects of the country's life.

Peter 1. Military reforms

In the Azov campaign of 1695, undertaken by Perth 1, 30 thousand people took part, only 14 thousand of whom were organized in the European manner. The remaining 16 thousand were militias, involved in military labor only during combat operations. The unsuccessful siege of Narva in 1695 showed the complete inability of the militia to conduct offensive fighting, and they didn’t cope well with defense, constantly being willful and not always obeying their superiors.

Reforms and transformations began in the army and navy. Carrying out the decrees of Peter 1, on November 19, 1699, 30 infantry regiments were created. These were the first regular infantry troops to replace the Streltsy militia; the service became indefinite. Only for the Little Russian and Don Cossacks was an exception made; they were called up only if necessary. The cavalry did not escape the reforms either; many officers recruited from foreigners turned out to be unfit for service, they were hastily changed and new cadres from among their own, from the Russians, were trained.

To wage the northern war with the Swedes, the army of Peter 1 is already being formed from a set of free people and serfs; recruits are recruited from landowners, depending on the number of peasant households. Hastily trained by officers hired in Europe, the army of Peter I, according to foreign diplomats, was a pitiful sight.

But gradually, having gone through battles, the soldiers gained combat experience, the regiments become more combat-ready, being in battles and campaigns for a long time, the army becomes permanent. Recruits, previously recruited haphazardly, are now being ordered, recruitment comes from all classes, including nobles and clergy. The training of new recruits was carried out by retirees who had completed military service and dropped out due to injury and illness. Recruits were trained at assembly points of 500–1000 people, from where they were sent to the troops when the need arose to replenish the army. In 1701, before the military reform, the Russian army numbered up to 40 thousand people, of which more than 20 thousand were militias. In 1725, shortly before the end of the reign of Peter 1, after the reform, the composition of the regular troops Russian Empire numbered up to 212 thousand regular troops and up to 120 thousand militias and Cossacks.

Peter 1 builds the first warships in Voronezh for the siege and capture of Azov, which were later abandoned due to a change in policy and the transfer of hostilities from south to north against a new enemy. The defeat at Prut in 1711, and the loss of Azov, rendered the ships built in Voronezh useless, and they were abandoned. The construction of a new squadron in the Baltic began; in 1702, up to 3 thousand people were recruited and trained as sailors. At the shipyard in Lodeynopolsk in 1703, 6 frigates were launched, forming the first Russian squadron in the Baltic Sea. At the end of the reign of Peter I, the Baltic squadron consisted of 48 battleships, additionally there were about 800 galleys and other ships, the crew number was 28 thousand people.

To manage the fleet and army, the Military, Artillery and Admiralty Collegiums were created, which dealt with recruits, distributing them among regiments, supplying the army with weapons, ammunition, horses, and distributing salaries. To control the troops, a general staff was created, consisting of two general field marshals, Prince Menshikov and Count Sheremetev, who distinguished himself in the Northern War; there were 31 generals.

Voluntary recruitment into the army was replaced by permanent recruitment, the army switched to government support, and the number of infantry began to prevail over the cavalry. The maintenance of the army and navy cost 2/3 of the country's budget.

Peter 1. Reforms in social policy

Peter 1, who was busy carrying out state reform, needed associates capable of bearing not only the burden of war, but also capable of participating in state reforms and implementing the reforms conceived by Peter 1. The nobility, whose original function was to protect the state, did not always meet the requirements of the time , and Peter 1 acquired many of his associates from ordinary classes, thereby giving the smart and talented the opportunity to fully serve the fatherland and achieve positions on their own merits.

In 1714, Peter 1 issued a decree on single inheritance, ordering the transfer of property to any of the sons, at the choice of a nobleman or landowner, the rest were ordered to look for employment in the military or civil service, where they began service from the very bottom. By introducing reforms to the inheritance of property and estates, Peter 1 protected farms belonging to nobles and landowners from fragmentation and ruin, and at the same time encouraged the remaining heirs to enter into public service in search of food to achieve a position in society and in the service.

The next stage regulating service to the state was the table of ranks, published in 1722, dividing public service into military, civil and court service, providing for 14 ranks. The service had to start from the very beginning, moving forward according to one’s abilities. Not only nobles, but also people from any social class could enter the service. Those who reached rank 8 received lifelong nobility, which ensured an influx into ruling class smart and talented people capable of performing government functions.

The population of Russia, except for the clergy and nobles, was taxed, peasants paid 74 kopecks per year, residents of the southern outskirts paid 40 kopecks more. The reform and replacement of the land tax, and the following household tax, with a poll tax for every male resident of the Russian Empire, led to an increase in arable land, the size of which now did not affect the amount of the tax. The population size was established by the population census conducted between 1718 and 1724. City residents were assigned to their place of residence and were also taxed. In 1724, Peter 1 issued a decree prohibiting serfs from going to work without the written permission of the landowner, which marked the beginning of the passport system.

Peter 1. Reforms in industry and trade

The most labor-intensive reform was carried out in industry, which was in its infancy. To change the situation, money, specialists, and human resources were required. Peter 1 invited specialists from abroad, trained his own, workers at the factories were assigned to the land, they could not be sold except with the land and the factory. In 1697, by order of Peter 1, the construction of blast furnaces and foundries for the manufacture of cannons began in the Urals, and a year later the first metallurgical plant was built. New cloth, gunpowder, metallurgical, sailing, leather, rope and other factories and plants are being built; up to 40 enterprises were built in a few years. Among them, we can highlight the factories under the leadership of Demidov and Batashov, which met Russia’s need for iron and copper. The weapons factory built in Tula supplied the entire army with weapons. To attract boyars and nobles to industrial production, and develop their entrepreneurship skills, Peter 1 introduced a system of benefits, government subsidies and loans. Already in 1718, Russian factories smelted almost 200 thousand poods (1 pood = 16 kilograms) of copper, and 6.5 million poods of cast iron.

By inviting foreign specialists, Peter 1 created the most convenient working conditions for them, severely punishing any official noticed in their oppression. In return, Peter 1 demanded only one thing: to teach Russian workers the craft without hiding professional techniques and secrets from them. IN different countries Russian students were sent to Europe to study and adopt various skills and professions, from the skill of laying out stoves to the ability to heal people.

Introducing reforms and seeking the development of trade, Peter 1 encouraged merchants, freeing them from duties, government and city services, allowing them to trade duty-free for several years. One of the obstacles to trade was the distance and condition of the roads; even the journey from Moscow to St. Petersburg sometimes took up to five weeks. Peter 1, carrying out reforms in industry and trade, first of all dealt with the problem of cargo delivery routes. Deciding to adapt river routes for the delivery of goods and cargo, Peter 1 ordered the construction of canals; not all of his undertakings were successful; during his lifetime, the Ladoga and Vyshnevolotsky canals were built, connecting the Neva River with the Volga.

Petersburg is becoming shopping center, receiving several hundred merchant ships annually. Duties are introduced for foreign merchants, giving Russian merchants an advantage in the domestic market. The monetary system is developing and improving, copper coins are beginning to be minted and put into circulation.

On next year, after the death of Peter 1, as a result of the trade reform he carried out, the export of goods from Russia was twice as high as the import of foreign goods.

Reforms and transformations were unsystematic and chaotic in nature; Peter 1 had to first of all implement those reforms that were needed immediately; being in a state of constant wars, he did not have the time and opportunity to develop the country according to any specific system. Peter 1 had to implement many reforms with a whip, but as time has shown, all taken together, the reforms of Peter the Great amounted to a certain system, which ensured the Russian state respect for national interests in the present and future, preserved national sovereignty and prevented falling behind European countries.

Peter 1. State administrative reforms

While streamlining and simplifying the cumbersome and confusing bureaucracy, Peter 1 carried out a series of reforms that made it possible to replace the system of orders and the Boyar Duma, which turned out to be ineffective in governing the state, which was changing under the influence of wars and reforms, and which required a new approach to its needs.

The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Senate in 1711; decisions previously made by the boyars began to be made and approved by the closest associates of Peter 1, who enjoyed his trust. Since 1722, the work of the Senate began to be led by the Prosecutor General; members of the Senate, taking office, took an oath.

The previously existing system of orders for governing the state was replaced by collegiums, each of which dealt with its assigned area. The Collegium of Foreign Affairs was in charge exclusively of foreign relations, the Military Collegium dealt with all issues related to ground forces. In addition to the above, the following collegiums were created: Admiralty, Patrimonial, State - office - collegium, Kamer - collegium, Commerce - collegium, Berg - collegium, Manufactur - collegium, Justits - collegium, Revision - collegium. Each board dealt with the area assigned to it, the fleet, noble lands, state expenditures, revenue collection, trade, the metallurgical industry, all other industry, legal proceedings and budget execution, respectively.

The reforms of the church led to the formation of the Spiritual College, or Synod, which subordinated the church to the state; the patriarch was no longer elected; the “guardian of the patriarchal throne” was appointed in his place. Since 1722, states were approved for clergy, according to which one priest was assigned to 150 households, and the remaining clergy were taxed on a general basis.

The vast territory of the Russian Empire was divided into eight provinces: Siberian, Kazan, Azov, Smolensk, Kyiv, Arkhangelsk, St. Petersburg, Moscow. Further administrative fragmentation took place into provinces; provinces were divided into counties. In each province, a regiment of soldiers was stationed to perform police functions during riots and riots.

Many people know that the changes carried out by Peter I radically changed the state. The transformations affected all spheres of life of Russian citizens, leaving a major mark on history.

The reforms were of great importance for the further development of the country and laid the foundation for numerous achievements in all spheres of life of the state and its citizens.

It is very difficult to cover all the innovations that revolutionized the structure of Russia at the beginning of the 18th century in one article, but we will try to briefly describe what transformations broke the old social structure.

Peter I, with his reforms, affected almost all spheres of life.

Transformations took place simultaneously in the most important areas of government activity:

• army;
• estates;
• public administration;
• church;
• economics and finance;
• science, culture and education.

The activities of most areas have changed fundamentally.

Most of all, the sovereign dreamed of creating a fleet and developing maritime trade relations with Europe. To achieve this goal, he went on a journey. Returning after visiting several European countries, the tsar saw how much Russia lagged behind in its development.

Moreover, backwardness from Europe was manifested in all spheres of activity. Peter understood that without reforms Russia would forever lose the opportunity to compare in level of development with European states. The need for transformation is long overdue, and in all areas of life at once.

Thus, the Boyar Duma did not fulfill its intended function of governing the country. The training and armament of the Streltsy army was not suitable. If necessary, it is unlikely that the soldiers would cope with their task. Level industrial production, education and culture was significantly lower than European.

Although there have already been some shifts towards development. Cities were separated from villages, crafts and agriculture divided, industrial enterprises appeared.

The path of Russia's development took place in two directions: something was borrowed from the West, something developed independently. On such a basis, Peter I began global transformations in Russia.

The goals of the reforms are summarized in the table:

Military reforms

The most famous transformation of Peter I was the creation of a navy. Under Peter I, about 800 galleys and 50 sailing ships were built.

The army reform introduced regular regiments of the new system. These changes began under Mikhail Fedorovich and Alexei Mikhailovich. But then the regiments were assembled only for the duration of hostilities, and after the end they were disbanded.

The reorganization consisted in the fact that soldiers were specially recruited for the regular army. They were removed from their families and could not engage in anything other than military affairs. The Cossacks ceased to be a free ally. He was under an obligation to regularly supply a certain number of troops.

Social change

Thanks to Peter's reforms, the lives of all segments of society changed. The nobles were forced to serve on an equal basis with everyone else. They started, like everyone else, from the lower ranks. The rest could rise to higher ranks on a par with the nobility. The “Table of Ranks” was published. It appointed 14 service ranks.

Compulsory training was introduced to prepare for service. It included literacy, arithmetic (numbers at that time), and geometry. Completion of training was also mandatory for the nobility.

In addition, there was an exam after completion. If a nobleman did not pass it, he was forbidden to receive an officer rank and get married.

But changes could not happen instantly. In fact, the nobles still had privileges.

They were immediately appointed to the guards regiments and did not always begin their service with the lower ranks.

Despite this, there was a lot of discontent on the part of the nobility. But this did not change the reforms of Peter I.

Changes also occurred in the lives of peasants. Instead of house-to-house taxation, capitation taxation appeared.

An important decree on unified inheritance was issued. According to this decree, nobles had the right to leave their real estate to only one person. It could be the eldest child, or it could be another person in the will.

Governance reforms

There's a new one government agency- Governing Senate. Its members were appointed by the king himself. The work of this body was supervised by the Prosecutor General. At first, the Governing Senate had only an administrative function; a little later a legislative function appeared.

The Boyar Duma finally lost its significance and influence on the Tsar. The sovereign discussed all matters with his entourage, of whom there were few.

There have been changes in the management of various areas. Orders were replaced by collegiums.

The last 12 were:

• church;
• marine;
• military;
• foreign affairs;
• trading;
• by income;
• by expenses;
• financial;
• mining industry;
• manufacturing industry;
• Justice;
• urban.

Pay attention! Initially, the members of these boards were equal and consulted among themselves. The leadership of the boards by the minister appeared later.

Another transformation concerns the division of Russia. The country was divided into provinces, which, in turn, included provinces and districts. In the latter, the governor was appointed head, and in the provinces the governor was in charge.

One of the reforms of Peter I became key in history. It led to an era of palace coups. The king changed the law on succession to the throne. According to the new law, the sovereign himself could appoint an heir.

Economic changes are summarized in the table:

Financial reforms manifested themselves in the fact that the tax system changed. More and more so-called indirect taxes appeared. Taxes were assigned to such things as stamp paper, baths, and beards. Coins were minted lighter.

A new position was invented - profit maker. These people suggested to the king what else could be taxed. These measures led to a significant increase in the treasury.

The church reform of Peter I made the church dependent on the tsar. After the death of the last patriarch Hadrian, the patriarchate ceased to exist. The Holy Synod appeared. This board represented the clergy. Its members were elected not by the church, but by the sovereign. Monasteries were also under state control.

Science, culture and education also did not remain aloof from Peter’s transformations; the sovereign tried his best to give Russia a Western look.

Social receptions in the Western style began to be held among the nobility and nobility. The upper class was ordered to cut off their beards. Was introduced into fashion european clothing, the arrangement of houses changed in imitation of London and Paris. Western literature was translated into Russian.

Significant changes were made in the field of education of noble offspring. Peter I opened several schools in which the humanitarian component of education faded into the background. Much attention was paid to the exact sciences. Changes also occurred in writing. The old letter was replaced with a modern one.

Important! Under Peter I, the first publicly accessible newspaper, Moskovskie Vedomosti, began to be published.

The table will help to briefly list the main directions of reforms and their achievements:

The most important events transformations with dates are reflected in the following chronological list:

• 1708–1710 – establishment of eight provinces;
• 1711 – establishment of the Senate;
• 1712 – emergence of companies in trade and industry;
• 1714 – decree on the transfer of real estate;
• 1718 – population census;
• 1718–1720 – emergence of colleges;
• 1718–1724 – reform of the per capita taxation of peasants;
• 1719 – division of the country into governorates and provinces;
• 1721 – the beginning of the dependence of the church on the state;
• 1722 – “Table of Ranks”;
• 1722 – workshop organization;
• 1724 – introduction of large taxes on imported goods.

Features of the reforms

The transformations carried out by Peter I were among the most unusual in the history of Russia.

The features of the reforms of Peter I were that they:

• they covered all areas of life;
• transformations took place very quickly;
• Coercive methods were used most;
• all of Peter's transformations were aimed at imitating Europe.

The main feature of the reforms of Peter I can be called his direct participation in all ongoing reforms.

What happened after the transformation was completed:

• centralized power;
• strong army and navy;
• stability in the economic sphere;
• abolition of the patriarchate;
• loss of independence by the church;
• a big step forward in the development of science and culture;
• creating the basis for Russian education.

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Let's sum it up

As a result of the reforms of Peter I in Russia there was a significant increase in all spheres of life. The transformations provided not only a huge leap in development, but also a good basis for further progress. The country began to develop at an accelerated pace.

PETER'S REFORMS.
Financial reform. It was carried out throughout the reign of Peter. A new set of taxes, large sales of tar, salt, alcohol. The penny becomes the main one and is firmly strengthened.Results: increase in the treasury.
Reform public administration. 1699 - 1721 Creation of the Near Chancellery (later the Governing Senate) Results: the public administration system has become more advanced.
Provincial reform. 1708 - 1715, 1719 - 1720 Russia is divided into 8 provinces: Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan, Ingermandland, Siberian, Azov, Smolensk, Arkhangelsk. Then the provinces will be divided into another 50 provinces. Result: there was a centralization of power.
Judicial reform. 1697, 1719, 1722 New judicial bodies were formed: the Senate, the Justice - Collegium, the Hofgerichts, the lower courts. The jury trial was cancelled. Results: permissiveness of the governors, the governors made changes to the testimony of the jury, which was not the best way out.
Military reform. from 1699 - until the death of Peter. Introduction of conscription, creation of a fleet, tables of ranks, new military industrial enterprises. Result: regular army, new regiments, divisions, squadrons were created.
Church reform. 1700 - 1701 1721 Restoration of the Monastic Order. In 1721 The Spiritual Regulations were adopted, which deprived the church of independence. Results: The church was completely subordinate to the state. Decline of the clergy.

Northern War.
War algorithm:
Cause: between the Swedish Empire and the coalition of northern European states for the possession of the Baltic lands. Initially, the Northern Alliance declared war on Sweden. The Northern Alliance included: Russia, Denmark (later dropped out), Saxony. Allied countries on the side of Russia: Hanover, Holland, Prussia. Allied countries on Sweden's side: Great Britain, Ottoman Empire, Holstein. Commanders-in-Chief on the Russian side: Peter I, Sherementyev, Menshikov. Commanders-in-Chief on the Swedish side: Charles XII. Beginning of the war: 1700. Total number of Russian soldiers: 32 thousand. Total number of Swedish soldiers: 8 thousand. Lost weapons of the countries: Russia - 8 thousand people, 145 guns and all food supplies. Sweden - 3 thousand people. At the very beginning of the war, Russia was at a loss. And the first campaign against Sweden was a failure. Peter sought to recapture previously taken by Sweden Russian lands. And open access to the sea (respectively, opening a window to Europe). Another reason for Russia’s defeat is that most of the soldiers were hired and fled to the side of Sweden. There are only two regiments left - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky. But Russian army still managed to win. The young king of Sweden, after winning over Russia, went to war with Poland. Next came the Battle of Poltava. For which RI was ready, Sweden was confused. Peter thoroughly prepared his troops for this battle. The Republic of Ingushetia finally defeated Sweden near the village of Lesnaya. A convoy from Riga with food for Sweden was destroyed. The lands and access to the sea were open. Victory remained with our troops.