Origin and main stages of development of the Russian language. History of the origin of the Russian language

Brief history Russian language

Russian is one of the largest languages in the world: in terms of the number of speakers it ranks fifth after Chinese, English, Hindi and Spanish. Russian is one of the official and working languages of the UN. The number of Russian speakers is about 180 million people. Belongs to the eastern group Slavic languages. Among the Slavic languages, Russian is the most widespread. All Slavic languages show great similarities among themselves, but the ones closest to the Russian language are Belarusian and Ukrainian. The three of these languages form the East Slavic subgroup, which is part of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family.
History of the origin and formation of the Russian language

The history of the origin of the Russian language goes back to ancient times. Around the 2nd-1st millennium BC. e. From the group of related dialects of the Indo-European family of languages, the Proto-Slavic language stands out (at a later stage - around the 1st-7th centuries - called Proto-Slavic).

Already in Kievan Rus(9th - early 12th centuries) the Old Russian language became a means of communication for some Baltic, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, and partly Iranian tribes and nationalities. In the 14th-16th centuries. southwestern variety literary language Eastern Slavs was the language of statehood and Orthodox Church in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Principality of Moldova.

Feudal fragmentation, which contributed to dialect fragmentation, the Mongol-Tatar yoke (13-15 centuries), Polish-Lithuanian conquests led to the 13-14 centuries. to the collapse of the ancient Russian people. The unity of the Old Russian language gradually disintegrated. Three centers of new ethno-linguistic associations were formed that fought for their Slavic identity: northeastern (Great Russians), southern (Ukrainians) and western (Belarusians). In the 14th-15th centuries. On the basis of these associations, closely related but independent East Slavic languages are formed: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.
History of the development of the Russian language - the era of Moscow Rus'

The Russian language of the era of Muscovite Rus' (14th-17th centuries) had a complex history. Dialect features continued to develop. Two main dialect zones took shape - Northern Great Russian approximately in the north from the line Pskov - Tver - Moscow, south of N. Novgorod, and Southern Great Russian in the south from the indicated line to the Belarusian and Ukrainian regions - dialects that overlapped with other dialect divisions. Intermediate Central Russian dialects arose, among which the Moscow dialect began to play a leading role. Initially it was mixed, then it developed into a coherent system. The following became characteristic of him: akanye; pronounced reduction of vowels of unstressed syllables; plosive consonant "g"; ending “-ovo”, “-evo” in the genitive case of the singular masculine and neuter in the pronominal declension; hard ending “-t” in 3rd person verbs of the present and future tense; forms of the pronouns “me”, “you”, “myself” and a number of other phenomena. The Moscow dialect is gradually becoming exemplary and forms the basis of the Russian national literary language. At this time, in living speech, a final restructuring of the categories of time occurs (the ancient past tenses - aorist, imperfect, perfect and plusquaperfect are completely replaced by a unified form with "-l"), the loss of the dual number, the previous declension of nouns according to six stems is replaced modern types declinations, etc. The written language remains colorful.

In the 17th century National ties emerge and the foundations of the Russian nation are laid. In 1708, the division of the civil and Church Slavonic alphabet took place. In the 18th and early 19th centuries. Secular writing became widespread, church literature gradually moved into the background and finally became the lot of religious rituals, and its language turned into a kind of church jargon. Scientific, technical, military, nautical, administrative and other terminology developed rapidly, which caused a large influx of words and expressions from Western European languages into the Russian language. There was a particularly great impact from the 2nd half of the 18th century. The French language began to influence Russian vocabulary and phraseology.

The collision of heterogeneous linguistic elements and the need for a common literary language posed the problem of creating unified national language norms. The formation of these norms took place in a sharp struggle between different trends. Democratic-minded sections of society sought to bring the literary language closer to the people's speech, while the reactionary clergy tried to preserve the purity of the archaic “Slovenian” language, incomprehensible to the general population. At the same time, an excessive passion for foreign words began among the upper strata of society, which threatened to clog the Russian language.

In the modern Russian language there is an active (intensive) growth of special terminology, which is caused, first of all, by the needs of the scientific and technological revolution. If at the beginning of the 18th century. terminology was borrowed by Russian from German language, in the 19th century. - from French, then in the middle of the 20th century. it is borrowed mainly from English language(in its American version). Special vocabulary has become the most important source of replenishing the vocabulary of the Russian general literary language, but the penetration of foreign words should be reasonably limited.
About the development of the Russian language

Since the middle of the 20th century. The study of the Russian language is increasingly expanding throughout the world. Information for the mid-70s: Russian language is taught in 87 countries: in 1648 universities; the number of students exceeds 18 million people. In 1967, the International Association of Teachers of Russian Language and Literature (MAPRYAL) was created; in 1974 - Institute of Russian Language named after. A. S. Pushkin.

Russian language- one of the East Slavic languages, one of largest languages world, the national language of the Russian people. It is the most widespread of the Slavic languages and the most widespread language of Europe, both geographically and in terms of the number of native speakers (although also a significant and geographically large part of the Russian linguistic area is located in Asia).
The science of the Russian language is called linguistic Russian studies, or, in short, simply Russian studies.

Story

History of the origin and formation of the Russian language

Already in Kievan Rus (9th - early 12th centuries), the Old Russian language became a means of communication for some Baltic, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, and partly Iranian tribes and nationalities. In the 14th-16th centuries. the southwestern variety of the literary language of the Eastern Slavs was the language of statehood and the Orthodox Church in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Principality of Moldova.

History of the development of the Russian language - the era of Moscow Rus'

The Russian language of the era of Muscovite Rus' (14th-17th centuries) had a complex history. Dialect features continued to develop. Two main dialect zones took shape - Northern Great Russian approximately in the north from the line Pskov - Tver - Moscow, south of N. Novgorod, and Southern Great Russian in the south from the indicated line to the Belarusian and Ukrainian regions - dialects that overlapped with other dialect divisions. Intermediate Central Russian dialects arose, among which the Moscow dialect began to play a leading role. Initially it was mixed, then it developed into a coherent system. The following became characteristic of him: akanye; pronounced reduction of vowels of unstressed syllables; plosive consonant "g"; ending “-ovo”, “-evo” in the genitive case of the singular masculine and neuter in the pronominal declension; hard ending “-t” in 3rd person verbs of the present and future tense; forms of the pronouns “me”, “you”, “myself” and a number of other phenomena. The Moscow dialect is gradually becoming exemplary and forms the basis of the Russian national literary language. At this time, in living speech, a final restructuring of the categories of time occurs (the ancient past tenses - aorist, imperfect, perfect and plusquaperfect are completely replaced by a unified form with “-l”), the loss of the dual number, the former declension of nouns according to six stems is replaced by modern types of declension and etc. The written language remains colorful.

20th century

The Great October Socialist Revolution and the building of socialism in the USSR had a noticeable impact on the Russian language: the vocabulary of the language was updated and increased, some changes (less noticeable) occurred in the grammatical structure, a stylistic revaluation of a number of linguistic phenomena also occurred, the stylistic means of the language were enriched, etc. . In connection with the general spread of literacy and the rise in the cultural level of the population, the literary language became the main means of communication of the Russian nation, in contrast to the pre-revolutionary past, when the bulk of the people spoke local dialects and urban vernacular. The development of phonetic, grammatical and lexical norms of the modern Russian literary language is regulated by two related trends: established traditions, considered exemplary, and the constantly changing speech of native speakers. Established traditions are the use of speech means in the language of writers, publicists, theater artists, masters of cinema, radio, television and other means of mass communication. For example, the exemplary “Moscow pronunciation”, which became all-Russian, was developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. at the Moscow Art and Maly theaters. It changes, but its foundations are still considered unshakable.

Neutral (not stylistically colored) means of the modern Russian literary language form its basis. Other forms, words and meanings have a stylistic coloring, which gives the language all sorts of shades of expressiveness. The most widespread are colloquial elements that carry the functions of ease, some reduction of speech in the written variety of the literary language and are neutral in everyday speech. However, colloquial speech component The literary language does not represent a special linguistic system.

A common means of stylistic diversity in literary language is vernacular. It, like the spoken means of language, is dual: being organic part literary language, at the same time exists beyond its borders. Historically, vernacular goes back to the old colloquial speech of the urban population, which opposed the book language at a time when the norms of the oral variety of the literary language had not yet been developed. The division of the old colloquial speech into the oral variety of the literary language of the educated part of the population, and the vernacular began around the middle of the 18th century. Subsequently, the vernacular becomes a means of communication for predominantly illiterate and semi-literate townspeople, and within the literary language, some of its features are used as a means of bright stylistic coloring.

Dialects occupy a special place in the Russian language. In conditions of universal education, they quickly die out and are replaced by the literary language. In their archaic part, modern dialects consist of 2 large dialects: Northern Great Russian (okanye, plosive consonant “g”, vowel contraction, forms of personal pronouns “me”, “you”, “yourself”, hard ending “-t” in verbs of the 3rd persons of the present and future tense) and Southern Great Russian (akanie, fricative consonant g, accusative and genitive case forms of the pronouns “mene”, “thee”, “sebe”, soft ending “-т” in verbs of the 3rd person of the present and future tense) with an intermediate transitional Central Russian dialect. There are smaller units, the so-called dialects (groups of closely related dialects), for example Novgorod, Vladimir-Rostov, Ryazan. This division is arbitrary, since the boundaries of distribution of individual dialect features usually do not coincide. The boundaries of dialectal features cross Russian territories in different directions, or these features are distributed only over part of it. Before the advent of writing, dialects were a universal form of language existence. With the emergence of literary languages, they, changing, retained their strength; the speech of the vast majority of the population was dialectal. With the development of culture and the emergence of the national Russian language, dialects become predominantly the speech of the rural population. Modern Russian dialects are turning into unique semi-dialects, in which local features are combined with the norms of the literary language. The dialects constantly influenced the literary language. Dialecticisms are still used by writers for stylistic purposes.

In the modern Russian language there is an active (intensive) growth of special terminology, which is caused, first of all, by the needs of the scientific and technological revolution. If at the beginning of the 18th century. terminology was borrowed by the Russian language from the German language in the 19th century. - from the French language, then in the mid-20th century. it is borrowed mainly from the English language (in its American version). Special vocabulary has become the most important source of replenishing the vocabulary of the Russian general literary language, but the penetration of foreign words should be reasonably limited.

The modern Russian language is represented by a number of stylistic, dialect and other varieties that are in complex interaction. All these varieties, united by a common origin, a common phonetic and grammatical system and a basic vocabulary (which ensures mutual understanding of the entire population), constitute a single national Russian language, the main element of which is the literary language in its written and oral forms. Shifts in the system of the literary language itself, the constant influence on it of other varieties of speech lead not only to the enrichment of it with new means of expression, but also to the complication of stylistic diversity, the development of variation, i.e. the ability to denote the same or similar meaning in different words and forms.

The Russian language plays an important role as the language of interethnic communication between the peoples of the USSR. The Russian alphabet formed the basis for the writing of many newly written languages, and the Russian language became the second native language of the non-Russian population of the USSR. “The process of voluntary learning, which occurs in life, along with the native language, of the Russian language has positive value, since this promotes the mutual exchange of experience and the familiarization of each nation and nationality with the cultural achievements of all other peoples of the USSR and with world culture." There is a constant process of mutual enrichment of the Russian language and the languages of the peoples of the USSR.

About the development of the Russian language

Since the middle of the 20th century. The study of the Russian language is increasingly expanding throughout the world. The construction of the world's first socialist society, the development of Soviet science and technology, the needs of economic, scientific, cultural interchange, the global significance of Russian literature arouse interest in the Russian language and the need to master it in many countries. The Russian language is taught in 87 countries: in 1648 capitalist and developing countries and in all universities of the socialist countries of Europe; the number of students exceeds 18 million people. (1975). In 1967, the International Association of Teachers of Russian Language and Literature (MAPRYAL) was created; in 1974 - Institute of Russian Language named after. A. S. Pushkin; A special magazine "Russian Language Abroad" is published.

The science of Russian language plays a major role in the study of history and modern processes in the Russian language and in regulating its norms. Academic grammars, standard dictionaries (explanatory, spelling, spelling, difficulty dictionaries, synonymous, etc.), manuals on speech culture, magazines ("Russian language at school", "Russian speech", etc.), promotion of scientific knowledge about R. I. help stabilize its norms. The activities of the Institute of Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences (founded in 1944) and many departments of the Russian language at universities are aimed at studying and streamlining the language taking place in Russia. processes.

Writing and alphabet

The Russian language uses writing based on the Russian alphabet, which goes back to the Cyrillic alphabet (Cyrillic).
The alphabet of the Russian language, in its current form with 33 letters, has actually existed since 1918 (officially only since 1942: previously it was believed that the Russian alphabet had 32 letters, since E and E were considered as variants of the same letter).
A a B b C c D d D d E e E
F f Z h I i J j K k L l M m
N n O o P p R r S s T t U u
F f X x C c Ch h Sh w Sh sch b ъ
Y y y e e y y I I

The Russian language has come a long way historical development. There are three periods of development of the Russian language:

· Early period (VI-VII - XIV centuries).
· Middle period (XIV-XV - XVII centuries).
Late period (XVII-XVIII - end of XX - beginning of XXI century).

The first period (early) begins after the separation of the Eastern Slavs from the pan-Slavic unity and the formation of the language of the Eastern Slavs (Old Russian language) - the predecessor of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. This period is characterized by the presence of Old Church Slavonicisms, Church Slavonic vocabulary, and Turkic borrowings in the language. The second period (middle) begins with the collapse of the language of the Eastern Slavs and the separation of the Russian language proper (the language of the Great Russian people). By the second half of the 17th century, the Russian nation was taking shape and the Russian national language was taking shape, based on the traditions of the Moscow dialect.

Period III is the period of development of the Russian national language, design and improvement of the Russian literary language.

Period 1 (October 1917 - April 1985) is characterized by the presence of the following processes in the language:
- · Withdrawal into the passive reserve of a huge layer of secular and church vocabulary (lord, king, monarch, governor, gymnasium; Savior, Mother of God, bishop, Eucharist, etc.);
- · The emergence of new words reflecting changes in politics and economics. Most of them were official abbreviations of words and phrases: NKVD, RSDLP, collective farm, district committee, tax in kind, educational program, etc.;
- · Interference of the opposite. The essence of this phenomenon is that two words are formed that positively and negatively characterize the same phenomena of reality that exist in different political systems. After the October events of 1917, two lexical systems gradually emerged in the Russian language: one for naming the phenomena of capitalism, the other for socialism. So, if we were talking about enemy countries, then their intelligence officers were called spies, soldiers - occupiers, partisans - terrorists, etc.;
- · Renaming the denotation. Denotation is an object of extra-linguistic reality to which a linguistic sign as part of an utterance refers. Thus, not only the names of cities and streets are renamed (Tsaritsyn - to Stalingrad, Nizhny Novgorod- to Gorky; Great Noble - in Revolution Avenue), but also social concepts(competition - into socialist competition, harvesting - into the battle for the harvest, peasants - into collective farmers, etc.). As a result of the renaming, the authorities, firstly, managed to break the connection with the pre-revolutionary past, and secondly, to create the illusion of universal renewal. Thus, through the word, the party and government oligarchy influenced public consciousness.

During the 2nd period (April 1985 - present), serious political, economic, ideological changes took place, leading to significant changes in the Russian literary language:

· Significant expansion of vocabulary due to:
- a) foreign vocabulary (barter, business, legitimate);
- b) the formation of a mass of new words in the Russian language itself (post-Soviet, denationalization, de-Sovietization);
· Return to the active vocabulary of words that left the language during the Soviet period (Duma, governor, corporation; communion, liturgy, all-night vigil);
· Relegation to a passive stock of Soviet words (collective farm, Komsomolets, district committee);
· Changes in the meanings of many words that occur for ideological and political reasons. For example, in the dictionary of the Soviet period the following is written about the word God: “God - according to religious and mystical ideas: a mythical supreme being who allegedly rules the world” (Ozhegov S.I. Dictionary of the Russian Language. - M., 1953). The definition includes indicators unreliability (particle allegedly and adjective mythical). The purpose of this interpretation is to impose an atheistic worldview on the user of the dictionary, corresponding to totalitarian ideology. In the modern dictionary - “God - in religion: the supreme omnipotent being...” (Ozhegov S.I. Dictionary Russian language: 80,000 words and phraseological expressions. - M., 2006);
· Vulgarization - the use in the speech of seemingly educated people of slang, colloquial and other extra-literary elements (bucks, kickback, disassembly, chaos);
· “Foreignization” of the Russian language - that is, the unjustified use of borrowings in speech (reception - reception, reception point; gang - criminal association, gang; show - spectacle, etc.).

There are “external” and “internal” history of the language. By “internal” history we mean the development of the language structure and its individual subsystems (for example, the phonological subsystem, grammatical subsystem, etc.). “External” history is connected with the history of the native speaker - the people. Naturally, the internal story “overlays” the external one.

The following periods are distinguished:

1) East Slavic period (VI – IX centuries) The period of settlement of Slavic groups throughout the territory Eastern Europe and their active interaction with the Baltic and Finno-Ugric peoples. During this period, territorial dialects were formed, serving early state associations.

2) Old Russian period (IX – XIV centuries) Two subperiods are distinguished here: a) Early Old Russian (before the end of the 11th – beginning of the 12th century); b) Late Old Russian. In the early Old Russian period, the language of the Old Russian people was formed, associated with the emergence of a single state association of the Eastern Slavs - Kievan Rus. Cities emerge on the territory of old tribal formations, old ethnonyms are replaced by the names of city residents. Thus, the Novgorod land appears on the territory of the Slovenes. At the same time, writing, transferred from the Slavic South, spread to Rus'. In Kyiv, as the center of the Russian land, in the conditions of mixing dialects, a supra-dialect formation is formed - the Kiev Koine. In the late ancient Russian period, in the era feudal fragmentation There is a separation of large dialect zones, primarily in the northeast and southwest; accordingly, the linguistic processes occurring during this period receive dialect reflection. As a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, Rus' was divided into isolated spheres of influence, within which the development of individual East Slavic languages began - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

3) Old Russian (Great Russian) period (XIV – XVII centuries). Includes the history of the development of the Great Russian people. The Great Russians are uniting around a new center - Moscow. The most significant phonetic phenomenon of this period was the spread of Akanya.

4) Initial period formation of the Russian national language (XVII – XVIII). As a result of the formation of the Russian nation, a single language is formed on the basis of Great Russian speech, characterized by multifunctionality, i.e. serving all areas of society. At this time, the functions of the Church Slavonic language were limited, as well as the leveling of dialects and their assignment outside the socio-economic centers.

5) Finally, the last, traditionally distinguished period is the era of development of the national Russian language (XIX - XX centuries), it is usually spoken of “from Pushkin to the present day.” The basic outlines of the norm of the modern literary language are taking shape and its oral variety is being formed.

6. Features of syllable construction in the language of the Eastern Slavs.

The syllabic structure that developed in the late Proto-Slavic period was characterized by two laws: One of the main features of the Old Russian language was that all syllables here were open, there was a law of the open syllable. All syllables ended with a vowel sound or a syllabic consonant. Consonants r And l could be syllabic, in their qualities they were close to vowel sounds and were syllabic. Currently, this feature has been preserved, for example, in the Czech language (Russian word top corresponds vrch, word throat - grlo, word wolf – vlk with syllabics l , r ). In the Old Russian phonetic system, the following patterns also existed: 1) the construction of a syllable according to increasing sonority (all syllables were built from a less sonorous consonant to a more sonorous vowel or syllabic consonant): bra-t, sl-po-ta; 2) the law of syllabic consonance (synharmonism), which assumes that in a syllable there should be adjacent sounds close in the zone of formation - hard consonants with non-front vowels, soft consonants with front vowels: horse, plo-d.

In the Proto-Slavic language, in addition to conditions, there was also form the existence of a syllable. It would be unclear why great value would have received a phonetic syllable if we had not taken into account the prosodic characteristics of the syllable, because it was the syllable that was their carrier. At the same time, quantitative oppositions (long-shortness) could exist both in individual vowels and in individual syllables: the phonemic opposition of long-short vowels also collided with the phonetic difference between long and short syllables. Even in the Proto-Slavic language, quantitative contrasts of vowels were lost in favor of the syllable, etc.: swan, lӉzѫ given instead. In short, the need arose to connect the length or shortness of each syllable with the length or shortness of neighboring syllables and, at the same time, to identify a feature that could somehow explain the phonetic preference of this particular syllable. This sign became a sign intonation, because of all the prosodic (from Greek - stress) features, only intonation can unite by its action two adjacent syllables, as if attaching them to each other: an increase (or decrease) of intonation begins 9or ends) on the syllable adjacent to the stressed syllable. As a result, what historians of the Proto-Slavic language call the transition of quantitative vowel differences into qualitative ones occurred and what could be considered the third main pattern of the Proto-Slavic phonological system.

The national language is the means of oral and written communication of a nation. Along with the commonality of territory, historical, economic and political life, as well as mental makeup, language is a leading indicator of the historical community of people, which is usually called the term nation(lat.natio – tribe, people).

Russian national language by kinship, belongs to to the Slavic group of the Indo-European family of languages. Indo-European languages are one of the largest language families, including Anatolian, Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Italic, Romance, Germanic, Celtic, Baltic, Slavic groups, as well as Armenian, Phrygian, Venetian and some other languages.

Slavic languages come from single pre-Slavic a language that emerged from the base Indo-European language long before our era. During the existence of the Proto-Slavic language, the main features inherent in all Slavic languages developed. Around the 6th-7th centuries AD, the pre-Slavic unity disintegrated. The Eastern Slavs began to use a relatively common East Slavic tongue. (Old Russian, or the language of Kievan Rus). Around the same time, they formed West Slavic(Czech, Slovak, Polish, Kashubian, Serbian Sorbian and “dead” Polabian) and South Slavic languages (Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian, Macedonian, Slovenian, Ruthenian and “dead” Old Church Slavonic).

In the 9th – 11th centuries, based on the translations of liturgical books made by Cyril and Methodius, the first written language of the Slavs was formed - Old Church Slavonic Its literary continuation will be the language used to this day in worship – Church Slavonic .

As feudal fragmentation intensified and the Tatar-Mongol yoke was overthrown, Great Russian, Little Russian and Belarusian nationalities were formed. Thus, the East Slavic group of languages falls into three related languages: Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian. By the 14th – 15th centuries, the language of the Great Russian people took shape, with Rostov-Suzdal and Vladimir dialects at its core.

Russian national language begins to take shape in the 17th century in connection with the development capitalist relations and the development of the Russian people into nation. The phonetic system, grammatical structure and basic vocabulary of the Russian national language are inherited from the language Great Russian people, formed in the process interaction between northern Great Russian and southern Great Russian dialects. Moscow, located on the border of the south and north of the European part of Russia, has become the center of this interaction. Exactly Moscow business vernacular had a significant impact on the development of the national language.

The 18th century became an important stage in the development of the Russian national language. During these times, our compatriots spoke and wrote using a large number of Old Church Slavonic and Church Slavonic elements. What was required was the democratization of the language, the introduction of living elements into its structure, colloquial speech merchants, service people, clergy and literate peasants. Main role V theoretical foundation of Russian language played by M.V. Lomonosov. The scientist creates a “Russian grammar”, which has theoretical and practical significance: ordering of literary language and development rules for using its elements. “All sciences,” he explains, “have a need for grammar. Oratorio is stupid, poetry is tongue-tied, philosophy is unfounded, history is incomprehensible, jurisprudence without grammar is dubious.” Lomonosov pointed out two features of the Russian language that made it one of the most important world languages:

- "the vastness of the places where he dominates"

- “your own space and contentment.”

In the Petrine era, due to the appearance in Russia of many new objects and phenomena The vocabulary of the Russian language is updated and enriched. The flow of new words was so enormous that even a decree of Peter I was needed to normalize the use of borrowings.

The Karamzin period in the development of the Russian national language is characterized by the struggle for the establishment of a single language norm in it. At the same time, N.M. himself Karamzin and his supporters believe that, when defining norms, it is necessary to focus on Western, European languages (French), free the Russian language from the influence of Church Slavonic speech, create new words, expand the semantics of those already used to denote emerging ones in the life of society, mainly secular, new objects, phenomena, processes. Karamzin’s opponent was the Slavophile A.S. Shishkov, who believed that the Old Church Slavonic language should become the basis of the Russian national language. The dispute over language between Slavophiles and Westerners was brilliantly resolved in the works of the great Russian writers of the early nineteenth century. A.S. Griboyedov and I.A. Krylov showed the inexhaustible possibilities of lively spoken language, the originality and richness of Russian folklore.

Creator the same national Russian language became A.S. Pushkin. In poetry and prose, the main thing, in his opinion, is “a sense of proportionality and conformity”: any element is appropriate if it accurately conveys thought and feeling.

In the first decades of the 19th century, the formation of the Russian national language was completed. However, the process of processing the national language in order to create uniform spelling, lexical, spelling and grammatical norms continues, numerous dictionaries are published, the largest of which was the four-volume Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language by V.I. Dalia.

After the October Revolution of 1917, important changes took place in the Russian language. Firstly, a huge layer of secular and religious vocabulary, which was very relevant before the revolution, “dies out.” The new government destroys objects, phenomena, processes and at the same time the words denoting them disappear: monarch, heir to the throne, gendarme, police officer, privat-docent, footman and so on. Millions of believing Russians cannot use openly Christian terminology: seminary, deacon, Eucharist, Ascension, Our Lady, Savior, Dormition, etc. These words live among the people secretly, latently, awaiting the hour of their revival. On the other side. a huge number of new words appear, reflecting changes in politics, economics, culture : Soviets, Kolchak member, Red Army soldier, security officer. A large number of complex abbreviated words appear: party contributions, collective farm, Revolutionary Military Council, Council of People's Commissars, commander, Prodrazverstka, tax in kind, cultural enlightenment, educational program. One of the striking distinctive features of the Russian language of the Soviet period – interference of the opposite, The essence of this phenomenon lies in the formation of two opposing lexical systems, positively and negatively characterizing the same phenomena that exist on opposite sides of the barricades, in the world of capitalism and in the world of socialism : scouts and spies, liberating soldiers and occupiers, partisans and bandits.

Nowadays, the Russian national language continues to develop in the post-Soviet space. Among modern characteristic features the most important languages are:

1) replenishment of the vocabulary with new elements; first of all, this is borrowed vocabulary denoting objects and phenomena of the political, economic and cultural life of the country: electorate, extreme sports, business center, conversion, clone, chip, iridology, HIV infection, audio cassette, cheeseburger, jacuzzi;

2) the return to use of words that seemed to have lost such an opportunity forever; first of all this religious vocabulary: lord, communion. Annunciation, Liturgy, All-Night Vigil, Epiphany, Metropolitan;

3) the disappearance, along with objects and phenomena, of words characterizing Soviet reality: Komsomol, party organizer, state farm, DOSAAF, pioneer;

4) destruction of the system formed as a result of the action interference of the opposite.