Completion of the main process of feudalization by the middle of the 11th century. led to the political collapse of the empire Charlemagne (Charlemagne), which began after his death (814). Large feudal lords became almost independent of the central government; small and medium feudal lords, becoming their vassals, were much more connected with the magnates than with the head of state - the king. The peasantry was basically already enslaved.

Son and successor of Charlemagne Louis the Pious(814-840), so called for his particularly zealous commitment to the church and generous gifts in its favor, in 817 he divided the empire between his sons, retaining only the supreme power.

In 843, after the death of Louis, his sons, having gathered in, concluded an agreement on a new division of the empire. Due to the fact that the new division corresponded to the boundaries of settlement of the French, German and Italian nationalities, Treaty of Verdun actually laid the foundation for the existence of three modern states of Western and Central Europe - France, Germany, Italy.

According to the Treaty of Verdun, the youngest son of Louis the Pious, Charles, nicknamed the Bald, received lands west of the Scheldt, Meuse and Rhone rivers - the West Frankish Kingdom, which included the main territories of the future France.

France in the 9th-11th centuries

After the collapse of the Carolingian Empire, the eastern border of France ran mainly along the rivers Meuse, Moselle and Rhone.

In the 10th century, internecine wars between the German and French Carolingians were fought almost continuously. The constant raids of the Normans brought many disasters. In a fierce struggle with them, the rich and influential came to the fore - in contrast to the Carolingians, who were weakened and had lost almost all their estates. Counts of Paris(Robertina). They successfully defended their cities from the enemy - and became the main rivals of the last Carolingians in the fight for the crown. In 987, the largest secular and spiritual feudal lords elected Robertin as king, and from then until the end of the 18th century (the French crown remained with the descendants of the Capetians.

In the 10th century, feudal relations were established in the French kingdom and the long process of merging heterogeneous ethnic elements. On the basis of the Gallo-Roman people who mixed with the Germans, two new ones emerged that became the core of the future French nation: Northern French and Provençal. The border between them ran somewhat south of the Loire River.

In the 10th century the country acquired its current name. It began to be called not Gaul or the West Frankish Kingdom, but France (after the name of the region around Paris - Ile-de-France).

In the territory occupied by the Northern French people, several large feudal estates were formed: Duchy of Normandy, County of Blois, Touraine,Anjou, Poitou. The Capetian lands (royal domain) were concentrated around Paris and Orleans.

On the territory of the Provençal people, the counties of Poitou, Auvergne, Toulouse and the duchies of Aquitaine, Gascony, Burgundy and others were formed.

The first kings of the Capetian house were not much different from the major feudal lords. They did not have a permanent residence; they moved with their retinue from one estate to another. In the 11th century, the Capetians slowly accumulated land holdings, extracting income mainly from their own estates, that is, from the direct exploitation of dependent and serf peasants who were in personal, land and judicial dependence on them.

The peasants resisted feudal exploitation in every possible way. In 997, the uprising spread. The peasants demanded the restoration of their former rights to free and free use of communal lands. In 1024, a peasant uprising broke out in. As the chronicle says, the peasants rebelled “without leaders or weapons,” but managed to offer heroic resistance to the knightly detachments. In defending their rights, peasants usually acted in entire communities.

France in the XI-XIII centuries

In the 11th-13th centuries, agriculture developed significantly in France: three-field farming became widespread, the plow was improved, and wheat took first place among grain crops. Thanks to new system it turned out to be possible to use horses instead of oxen. In the 12th century, massive clearing of fallow lands and forests began for arable land. The practice of fertilizing fields became more widespread. New varieties of vegetables began to be grown in gardens. At the end of the 12th century, windmills appeared in France.

Labor productivity grew mainly in peasant farming. On his allotment the peasant worked much harder and better than on the corvée. It became more profitable for lords to collect feudal rent not in the form of forced corvee labor, but from the harvest taken by peasants from their plots. The victory of food rent over labor rent was also facilitated by other circumstances, in particular, the clearing of forests. The main role in these works belonged to fugitive peasants who settled on new lands, personally free, but dependent on the feudal lords in land and judicial matters. Some peasants remained in serfdom in the 11th-12th centuries.

With the final establishment of feudalism, the fragmentation of France reached its completion, and the feudal hierarchy was distinguished by its greatest complexity. The king was a lord only for his immediate vassals: dukes, counts, as well as barons and knights of his domain. The norm of feudal law was in force: “The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal.”

The feudal fragmentation of France was further aggravated by significant differences in the socio-economic and political development of the northern and southern parts of the country, as well as the presence on its territory of two nationalities - northern French and southern French (Provencal). As in an earlier period, these peoples spoke local dialects of various languages: in the south of France - Provencal, in the north - Northern French. Due to the different pronunciation of the word “yes” in these languages ​​(“os” - in Provençal, “oil” - in northern French), later, in the 13th-14th centuries, the northern regions of France received the name “ Langedouil", and the southern ones - " Languedoc».

In the 10th century, based on the separation of crafts from agriculture, feudal cities began their lives - economic centers of crafts and trade. Old cities flourished and numerous new ones emerged. In the 13th century, the entire country was already covered with many cities. Southern cities became virtually independent republics. The nobles also lived and traded in them. The independent wealthy southern cities had little connection with each other. Therefore, even at the time of their greatest prosperity in the 12th century, a single economic and political center was not created in the south. The power of large feudal lords was weakened by the independence of large cities.

The cities of the North suffered a more difficult fate, as they economic activity met many obstacles along the way. The cities were in the power of lords, mainly bishops, who mercilessly robbed the townspeople under various pretexts, often resorting to violence. The townspeople had no rights; their property was constantly under threat of appropriation by the feudal lords. Therefore, the fight against lords became a matter of paramount importance for the cities of the North. Usually the townspeople organized a secret conspiracy and attacked the lord and his knights with weapons in their hands. If the uprising was successful, the feudal lords were forced to provide the city with a greater or lesser degree of self-government.

The growth of cities has accelerated the socio-economic differentiation of the urban population. The merchants and craftsmen of some workshops (butchers, clothmakers, jewelers, etc.) became rich and became very powerful; in the communes they completely seized power, neglecting the interests of the masses of artisans and small traders. A fierce internal struggle began in the cities. Taking advantage of this, the kings interfered in the internal affairs of the communes and, from the beginning of the 14th century, began to gradually deprive them of their former rights and privileges.

The city economically subordinated a fairly extensive rural area. Fugitive serfs flocked to it and found freedom there. Strong walls and armed guards now protected the cities from the encroachments of feudal lords.

In the 12th century, the process of state centralization began in France. Initially, it unfolds in Northern France, where there were economic and social prerequisites for it. The policy of royal power, aimed at subordinating feudal lords to it, was dictated primarily by the interests of the feudal class as a whole. Its main goal was to strengthen the central government to suppress the resistance of the peasants. Small and medium-sized feudal lords, who did not have sufficient means of non-economic coercion, especially needed this. They were also interested in strengthening royal power because they saw in it protection from the violence and oppression of stronger, larger feudal lords.

The opponents of this policy were the large feudal lords, who valued their political independence most of all; they were supported by part of the higher clergy. The strengthening of royal power was favored by the continuous enmity of large feudal lords among themselves. Each of them sought to strengthen itself at the expense of the others. The kings took advantage of this and fueled the fight.

The turning point in the growth of royal power corresponds to the beginning of the 12th century, when the resistance of the feudal lords in the royal domain was put to an end. The importance of royal power grew greatly at the beginning of the 13th century after, following Anjou, Maine, Touraine, it entered the domain. By this time, the royal possessions had approximately quadrupled.

In the 13th century, the strengthening of royal power was consolidated by a number of important reforms. For example, on the territory of the royal domain, judicial duels (that is, resolving litigation through a duel between the parties), which were widely used in seigneurial courts, were prohibited; litigants were given the opportunity to transfer the case to the royal court. The decision of any feudal court could be appealed to the royal court, which thus became the supreme authority for judicial matters of the entire kingdom. A number of the most important criminal cases were removed from the jurisdiction of feudal courts and were considered exclusively by the royal court.

There was further development of central administration. A special judicial chamber emerged from the Royal Council, called the “parliament”. To connect central authorities with local authorities, royal auditors were appointed, who controlled the activities of the local administration and reported to the king about all abuses.

In the royal domain, wars between feudal lords were prohibited, and in domains not yet annexed to the domain, the custom of “40 days of the king” was legalized, that is, the period during which the person who received the challenge could appeal to the king. This weakened feudal strife. A unified coinage system was introduced in the royal domain, and the royal coin was to be accepted throughout the country along with the local one. This contributed to the economic cohesion of France. Gradually, the royal coin began to displace the local coin from circulation.

Thus, the formation of a feudal state in France in the 11th-13th centuries went through a number of stages. Feudal fragmentation was first overcome in the northern part of the country on the basis of urban development and strengthening economic ties between regions. Paris, which became a major trade, craft and political center, became the capital of France. Part of the southern regions was annexed to the Capetian possessions later, when the northern part of the country was already quite firmly united around Paris and royal power.

At first they simply wandered peacefully through these lands with their herds of domestic animals. In 1200-900 BC. Celts began to settle mainly in the east of modern France.

At the end of the 8th century BC, after they mastered iron processing, stratification began in the Celtic tribes. Luxury items found during excavations show just how wealthy the Celtic aristocracy was. These items were made in different parts of the Mediterranean, including Egypt. Trade was already well developed in that era.

To strengthen their trading influence, the Phocian Greeks founded the city of Massalia (modern Marseille).

In the 6th century BC, during the La Tène culture in the history of France, the Celts began to rapidly conquer and develop new lands. They now had a plow with an iron coulter, which made it possible to cultivate the hard soil of central and northern modern France.

At the beginning of the 3rd century BC. The Celts were greatly supplanted by the Belgian tribes, but at the same time, in the history of France, the Celtic civilization was experiencing its greatest flowering. Money appears, fortified cities arise, between which there is an active circulation of money. In the 3rd century BC. e. The Celtic tribe of Parisians settled on an island in the Seine River. It was from this name of the tribe that the name of the capital of France, Paris, came. A tour to Paris will allow you to visit this Ile de la Cité - the place where the first inhabitants of Paris - the Parisian Celts - settled.

In the 2nd century BC. Europe was dominated by the Celtic tribe Averni. At the same time, the Romans increased their influence in the south of France. It is to Rome that the residents of Massalia (Marseille) are increasingly turning to Rome for protection. The next step on the part of the Romans was the conquest of the lands of what is now France. At this stage of its history, France was called Gaul.

The Romans called the Celts Gauls. Between Gauls and the Romans constantly flared up military conflicts. Proverb " Geese saved Rome"appeared after the Gauls attacked this city in the 4th century BC.

According to legend, the Gauls, approaching Rome, scattered the Roman army. Some of the Romans fortified themselves on the Capitoline Hill. At night, the Gauls began their assault in complete silence. And no one would have noticed them if not for the geese, which made a lot of noise.

For a long time, the Romans had difficulty resisting the attacks of the Gauls, spreading their influence further and further into their territory.

In the 1st century BC. viceroy in Gaul was sent Julius Caesar. The main headquarters of Julius Caesar was on the Ile de la Cité, on the site where Paris later grew up. The Romans named their settlement Lutetia. A trip to Paris necessarily involves a visit to this island, from which the history of Paris originates.

Julius Caesar began actions to finally pacify the Gauls. The struggle continued for eight years. Caesar tried to win over the population of Gaul to his side. A third of its inhabitants received the right of Roman allies or simply free citizens. Duties under Caesar were also quite mild.

It was in Gaul that Julius Caesar gained popularity among the legionnaires, which allowed him to enter the struggle for dominion over Rome. With the words “The die is cast,” he crosses the Rubicon River, leading the troops to Rome. For a long time, Gaul found itself under the rule of the Romans.

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Gaul was ruled by a Roman governor who declared himself an independent ruler.

In the 5th century, people settled on the left bank of the Rhine francs. Initially, the Franks were not a single people; they were divided into Salic and Ripuarian Franks. These two large branches were, in turn, subdivided into smaller “kingdoms”, ruled by their own “kings, who in essence were only military leaders.

The first royal dynasty in the Frankish state is considered Merovingians (late 5th century – 751). The dynasty received this name from the name of the semi-legendary founder of the clan - Merovea.

The most famous representative of the first dynasty in French history was Clovis (about 481 - 511). Having inherited his father's rather small possessions in 481, he began active military operations against Gaul. In 486, at the Battle of Soissons, Clovis defeated the troops of the last Roman governor of central Gaul and significantly expanded his possessions. This is how the rich region of Roman Gaul with Paris fell into the hands of the Franks.

Clovis did Paris the capital of his greatly expanded state. He settled on the island of Cité, in the palace of the Roman governor. Although tours to Paris include a visit to this place, almost nothing from the time of Clovis has survived to this day. Clovis later annexed the south of the country to these territories. The Franks also conquered many Germanic tribes east of the Rhine.

The most important event of Clovis's reign was his baptism. Under Clovis, in his possessions, the Franks adopted the Christian religion. This was an important stage in the history of France. Originated under Clovis Frankish state lasted about four centuries and became the immediate predecessor of the future France. In the V-VI centuries. all of Gaul became part of the vast Frankish monarchy.

The second dynasty in French history was Carolingians. They ruled the Frankish state from 751 of the year. The first king of this dynasty was Pepin the Short. He bequeathed a huge state to his sons - Charles and Carloman. After the death of the latter, the entire Frankish state was in the hands of King Charles. His main goal was to create a strong Christian state, which, in addition to the Franks, would also include pagans.

He was a prominent figure in history of France. Almost every year he organized military campaigns. The scope of the conquests was so great that the territory of the Frankish state doubled.

At this time, the Roman region was under the rule of Constantinople, and the popes were the governors of the Byzantine emperor. They turned to the Frankish ruler for help, and Charles supported them. He defeated the Lombard king, who threatened the Roman region. Having accepted the title of Lombard king, Charles began to introduce the Frankish system in Italy and united Gaul and Italy into one state. IN 800 was crowned in Rome by Pope Leo III with the imperial crown.

Charlemagne saw the support of royal power in the Catholic Church - he awarded its representatives with high positions, various privileges, and encouraged the forced Christianization of the population of the conquered lands.

Karl's extensive activities in the field of education were devoted to the task of Christian education. He issued a decree establishing schools in monasteries and tried to introduce compulsory education for the children of free people. He invited the most enlightened people of Europe to the highest state and church positions. The interest in theology and Latin literature that blossomed at the court of Charlemagne gives historians the right to call his era Carolingian Revival.

The restoration and construction of roads and bridges, the settlement of abandoned lands and the development of new ones, the construction of palaces and churches, the introduction of rational agricultural methods - all these are the merits of Charlemagne. It was after his name that the dynasty was called the Carolingians. The capital of the Carolingians was the city Aachen. Although the Carolingians moved the capital of their state from Paris, a monument to Charlemagne can now be seen on the Ile de la Cité in Paris. It is located on the square in front of Notre Dame Cathedral in the park named after him. A holiday in Paris will allow you to see the monument to this man, who left a bright mark on the history of France.

Charlemagne died in Aachen on January 28 814 of the year. His body was transferred to the Aachen Cathedral, which he built, and placed in a gilded copper sarcophagus.

The empire created by Charlemagne disintegrated within the next century. By Treaty of Verdun 843 it was divided into three states, two of which - West Frankish and East Frankish - became the predecessors of modern France and Germany. But the union of state and church he accomplished largely predetermined the character of European society for centuries to come. Charlemagne's educational and ecclesiastical reforms remained important for a long time.

The image of Charles after his death became legendary. Numerous tales and legends about him resulted in a cycle of novels about Charlemagne. According to the Latin form of the name Charles - Carolus - the rulers of individual states began to be called "kings".

Under Charlemagne's successors, a tendency towards the collapse of the state immediately appeared. Son and successor Charles Louis I the Pious (814–840) did not possess the qualities of his father and could not cope with the heavy burden of governing the empire.

After the death of Louis, his three sons began to struggle for power. Eldest son - Lothair- was recognized by the emperor and received Italy. Second brother - Louis the German- ruled the Eastern Franks, and the third, Karl Baldy, – Western francs. The younger brothers disputed the imperial crown with Lothair, and in the end the three brothers signed the Treaty of Verdun in 843.

Lothair retained his imperial title and received lands stretching from Rome through Alsace and Lorraine to the mouth of the Rhine. Louis took possession of the East Frankish Kingdom, and Charles took possession of the West Frankish Kingdom. Since then, these three territories have developed independently, becoming the predecessors of France, Germany and Italy. A new stage has begun in the history of France: never again in the Middle Ages did it unite with Germany. Both of these countries were ruled by different royal dynasties and became political and military rivals.

The most serious danger was at the end of the 8th – beginning of the 10th centuries. were raids Vikings from Scandinavia. Sailing their long, maneuverable ships along the northern and western coasts of France, the Vikings plundered the inhabitants of the coast, and then began to seize and populate the lands in northern France. In 885–886 the Viking army besieged Paris, and only thanks to the heroic defenders who were led Count Odo and Bishop Gozlin of Paris, the Vikings were driven back from the city walls. Charles the Bald, a king from the Carolingian dynasty, was unable to provide assistance and lost his throne. The new king in 887 became a count Odo of Paris.

The Viking leader Rollo managed to gain a foothold between the Somme River and Brittany, and the king Karl Simple from the Carolingian dynasty was forced to recognize his rights to these lands, subject to recognition of the supreme royal authority. The area became known as the Duchy of Normandy, and the Vikings who settled here quickly adopted Frankish culture and language.

The troubled period between 887 and 987 in the political history of France was marked by the struggle between the Carolingian dynasty and the family of Count Odo. In 987, large feudal magnates gave preference to the Odo family and elected them king Hugo Capeta, Count of Paris. The dynasty began to be called by his nickname Capetians. It was third royal dynasty in French history.

By this time, France was greatly fragmented. The counties of Flanders, Toulouse, Champagne, Anjou, and smaller counties were quite strong. Tours, Blois, Chartres and Meaux. In fact, independent lands were the duchies of Aquitaine, Burgundy, Normandy and Brittany. The only difference that distinguished the Capetian rulers from the rest of the rulers was that they were the legally elected kings of France. They ruled only their ancestral lands in Ile-de-France, stretching from Paris to Orleans. But even here in Ile-de-France, they could not control their vassals.

Only during the 30-year reign Louis VI the Tolstoy (1108–1137) managed to curb rebellious vassals and strengthen royal power.

After this, Louis took up management affairs. He appointed only loyal and capable officials, who were called provosts. The provosts carried out the royal will and were always under the supervision of the king, who constantly traveled around the country.

The critical stage in the history of France and the Capetian dynasty falls on the years 1137–1214. Also in 1066 Duke of Normandy Wilgelm the conqueror defeated the army of the Anglo-Saxon king Harold and annexed his rich kingdom to his duchy. He became king of England and at the same time had possessions on the mainland in France. During the reign Louis VII (1137–1180) English kings captured almost half of France. The English king Henry created a vast feudal state that almost surrounded Ile-de-France.

If Louis VII had been replaced on the throne by another equally indecisive king, disaster could have befallen France.

But Louis's heir was his son Philip II Augustus (1180–1223), one of the greatest kings in the history of medieval France. He began a decisive struggle against Henry II, inciting a rebellion against the English king and encouraging his internecine struggle with his sons who ruled the lands on the mainland. Thus, Philip was able to prevent attacks on his power. Gradually he deprived the successors of Henry II of all possessions in France, with the exception of Gascony.

Thus, Philip II Augustus established French hegemony in Western Europe for the next century. In Paris, this king is building the Louvre. Then it was just a castle-fortress. For almost all of us, a trip to Paris includes a visit to the Louvre.

Philip's most progressive innovation was the appointment of officials to administer the newly formed judicial districts in the annexed territories. These new officials, paid from the royal treasury, faithfully carried out the king's instructions and helped unify the newly conquered territories. Philip himself stimulated the development of cities in France, giving them broad rights of self-government.

Philip cared a lot about the decoration and safety of cities. He strengthened the city walls, surrounding them with moats. The king paved roads and paved streets with cobblestones, often doing this at his own expense. Philippe contributed to the founding and development of the University of Paris, attracting renowned professors with awards and benefits. Under this king, the construction of Notre Dame Cathedral continued, a visit to which is included in almost every trip to Paris. A holiday in Paris usually involves a visit to the Louvre, the construction of which began under Philip Augustus.

During the reign of Philip's son Louis VIII (1223–1226) The county of Toulouse was annexed to the kingdom. France now stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea. His son succeeded him Louis IX (1226–1270), who was later named Saint Louis. He was able to resolve territorial disputes through negotiations and treaties, while displaying a sense of ethics and tolerance unprecedented in the medieval era. As a result, during the long reign of Louis IX, France was almost always at peace.

To the board Philip III (1270–1285) the attempt to expand the kingdom ended unsuccessfully. Philip's significant achievement in the history of France was the agreement on the marriage of his son to the heiress of the County of Champagne, which guaranteed the annexation of these lands to the royal possessions.

Philip IV the Handsome.

Philip IV the Fair (1285–1314) played a significant role in the history of France, in the transformation of France into a modern state. Philip laid the foundations for an absolute monarchy.

To weaken the power of large feudal lords, he used the norms of Roman law as opposed to church and common law, which in one way or another limited the omnipotence of the crown by biblical commandments or tradition. It was under Philip that the highest authorities - Paris Parliament, Supreme Court and Court of Audit (Treasury)- from more or less regular meetings of the highest nobility turned into permanent institutions, in which they served mainly legists - experts in Roman law, who came from among small knights or wealthy townspeople.

Guarding the interests of his country, Philip IV the Fair expanded the territory of the kingdom.

Philip the Fair pursued a decisive policy to limit the power of the popes over France. The popes sought to free the church from state power and give it a special supranational and supranational status, and Philip IV demanded that all subjects of the kingdom be subject to a single royal court.

The popes also sought the opportunity for the church not to pay taxes to secular authorities. Philip IV believed that all classes, including the clergy, should help their country.

In the fight against such a powerful force as the papacy, Philip decided to rely on the nation and convened in April 1302 the first in the history of France, the Estates General - a legislative meeting of representatives of the three classes of the country: the clergy, the nobility and the third estate, which supported the king’s position in relation to the papacy . A fierce struggle began between Philip and Pope Boniface VIII. And in this struggle, Philip IV the Handsome won.

In 1305, the Frenchman Bertrand de Gault was elevated to the papal throne, taking the name Clement V. This Pope was obedient to Philip in everything. In 1308, at the request of Philip, Clement V moved the papal throne from Rome to Avignon. So it began " Avignon Captivity of the Popes" when the Roman high priests turned into French court bishops. Now Philip felt strong enough to destroy the ancient knightly order of the Templars - a very strong and influential religious organization. Philip decided to appropriate the wealth of the order and thus eliminate the debts of the monarchy. He brought imaginary charges against the Templars of heresy, unnatural vices, money-grubbing and alliance with Muslims. During rigged trials, brutal torture and persecution that lasted for seven years, the Templars were completely ruined, and their property went to the crown.

Philip IV the Handsome did a lot for France. But his subjects did not like him. The violence against the Pope aroused the indignation of all Christians; large feudal lords could not forgive him for the restrictions on their rights, in particular, the right to mint their own coins, as well as the preference shown by the king to rootless officials. The tax-paying class was outraged by the king's financial policies. Even people close to the king were afraid of the cold, rational cruelty of this man, this unusually beautiful and surprisingly impassive man. With all this, his marriage to Jeanne of Navarre was happy. His wife brought him the kingdom of Navarre and the county of Champagne as a dowry. They had four children, all three sons successively became kings of France: Louis X the Grumpy (1314-1316), Philip V the Long (1316-1322), Charles IV (1322-1328). Daughter Isabel was married to Edward II, King of England from 1307 to 1327.

Philip IV the Fair left behind a centralized state. After Philip's death, the nobles demanded the return of traditional feudal rights. Although the protests of the feudal lords were suppressed, they contributed to the weakening of the Capetian dynasty. All three sons of Philip the Fair had no direct heirs; after the death of Charles IV, the crown passed to his closest male relative, cousin Philippe Valois– to the founder Valois dynasty – fourth royal dynasty in French history.

Philip VI of Valois (1328–1350) went to the most powerful state in Europe. Almost all of France recognized him as a ruler, the popes obeyed him in Avignon.

Just a few years have passed and the situation has changed.

England sought to regain vast territories in France that had previously belonged to it. King of England Edward III (1327–1377) laid claim to the French throne as the maternal grandson of Philip IV the Fair. But the French feudal lords did not want to see an Englishman as their ruler, even if he was the grandson of Philip the Fair. Then Edward III changed his coat of arms, on which delicate French lilies appeared next to the grinning English leopard. This meant that Edward was now subordinate not only to England, but also to France, for which he would now fight.

Edward invaded France with an army, small in number, but including many skilled archers. In 1337, the British launched a victorious offensive in northern France. This was the beginning Hundred Years' War (1337-1453). In the battle of Crecy V 1346 Edward completely defeated the French.

This victory allowed the British to take an important strategic point - fortress-port of Calais, breaking the eleven-month heroic resistance of its defenders.

In the early 50s, the British launched an offensive from the sea into southwestern France. Without much difficulty they captured Guillenne and Gascony. To these areas Edward III appointed his son Prince Edward, named after the color of his armor, as viceroy Black Prince. The English army, led by the Black Prince, inflicted a brutal defeat on the French in 1356 at the Battle of Poitiers. New French king John the Good (1350–1364) was captured and released for a huge ransom.

France was devastated by troops and gangs of mercenary bandits, and a plague epidemic began in 1348–1350. The discontent of the people resulted in uprisings that shook the already devastated country for several years. The largest uprising was Jacquerie in 1358. It was brutally suppressed, as was the uprising of the Parisians, led by the merchant foreman Etienne Marcel.

John the Good was succeeded on the throne by his son Charles V (1364–1380), which turned the tide of the war and recaptured almost all of the lost possessions, except for a small area around Calais.

For 35 years after the death of Charles V, both sides - both French and English - were too weak to conduct major military operations. The next king Charles VI (1380–1422), was insane for most of his life. Taking advantage of the weakness of royal power, the English king Henry V in 1415 inflicted a crushing defeat on the French army Battle of Agincourt, and then began to conquer northern France. Duke of Burgundy, having become a virtually independent ruler on his lands, entered into an alliance with the British. With the help of the Burgundians, the English king Henry V achieved great success and in 1420 forced France to sign a difficult and shameful peace in the city of Troyes. According to this treaty, the country lost its independence and became part of the united Anglo-French kingdom. But not at once. According to the terms of the treaty, Henry V was supposed to marry the daughter of the French king Catherine and after the death of Charles VI become king of France. However, in 1422, death overtook both Henry V and Charles VI, and the one-year-old son of Henry V and Catherine, Henry VI, was proclaimed king of France.

In 1422 the British held most of France north of the Loire River. They launched attacks on fortified cities that defended the southern lands that still belonged to the son of Charles VI, the Dauphin Charles.

IN 1428 English troops besieged Orleans. It was a very strategically important fortress. The capture of Orleans opened the road to the south of France. An army led by Joan of Arc. Rumor spread the news of a girl being guided by God.

Orleans, besieged by the British for six months now, was in a difficult situation. The blockade ring was tightening. The townspeople were eager to fight, but the local military garrison showed complete indifference.

in spring 1429 army led Joan of Arc, managed to expel the British, and the siege of the city was lifted. Amazingly, besieged for 200 days, Olean was liberated 9 days after the arrival of Joan of Arc, nicknamed Maid of Orleans.

Peasants, artisans, and impoverished knights flocked from all over the country to the banner of the Maid of Orleans. Having liberated the fortresses on the Loire, Jeanne insisted that the Dauphin Charles go to Reims, where French kings had been crowned for centuries. After the ceremonial coronation Charles VII became the sole legitimate ruler of France. During the celebrations, the king wanted to reward Jeanne for the first time. She didn’t want anything for herself, she just asked Karl to exempt the peasants of her native land from taxes. village of Domremy in Lorraine. None of the subsequent rulers of France dared to take away this privilege from the inhabitants of Domremy.

IN 1430 year Joan of Arc was captured. In May 1431, nineteen-year-old Jeanne was burned at the stake in the central square of Rouen. The burning site is still marked with a white cross on the stones of the square.

Over the next 20 years, the French army liberated almost the entire country from the British, and in 1453 After the capture of Bordeaux, only the port of Calais remained under English rule. Ended Hundred Years' War, and France regained its former greatness. In the second half of the 15th century, once again in its history, France became the most powerful state in Western Europe.

This is what France got Louis XI (1461–1483). This king despised knightly ideals, even feudal traditions irritated him. He continued the fight against powerful feudal lords. In this struggle, he relied on the strength of cities and the help of their most prosperous inhabitants, attracted to public service. Through years of intrigue and diplomacy, he undermined the power of the Dukes of Burgundy, his most serious rivals in the struggle for political dominance. Louis XI managed to annex Burgundy, Franche-Comté and Artois.

At the same time, Louis XI began the transformation of the French army. Cities were freed from military service, and vassals were allowed to buy their way out of military service. The bulk of the infantry were Swiss. The number of troops exceeded 50 thousand. In the early 80s of the 15th century, Provence was annexed to France (with an important shopping center on the Mediterranean Sea - Marseille) and Maine. Of the large lands, only Brittany remained unconquered.

Louis XI took a significant step towards an absolute monarchy. Under him, the Estates General met only once and lost real significance. The prerequisites were created for the rise of the economy and culture of France, and the foundations were laid for relatively peaceful development in the following decades.

In 1483, a 13-year-old prince took the throne. Charles VIII (1483-1498).

From his father Louis XI, Charles VIII inherited a country in which order was restored, and the royal treasury was significantly replenished.

At this time, the male line of the ruling house of Brittany ceased; by marrying Duchess Anne of Brittany, Charles VIII included the previously independent Brittany into France.

Charles VIII organized a triumphal campaign in Italy and reached Naples, declaring it his possession. He was unable to hold Naples, but this expedition provided an opportunity to get acquainted with the wealth and culture of Renaissance Italy.

Louis XII (1498–1515) also led the French nobles on an Italian campaign, this time laying claim to Milan and Naples. It was Louis XII who introduced the royal loan, which played a fatal role in the history of France 300 years later. And before, French kings borrowed money. But the royal loan meant the introduction of a regular banking procedure in which tax revenues from Paris became a guarantee for the loan. The royal loan system provided investment opportunities for wealthy citizens of France and even bankers in Geneva and northern Italy. It was now possible to have money without resorting to excessive taxation and without recourse to the Estates General.

Louis XII was succeeded by his cousin and son-in-law, the Count of Angoulême, who became king Francis I (1515–1547).

Francis was the embodiment of the new spirit of the Renaissance in French history. He was one of the main political figures in Europe for more than a quarter of a century. During his reign, the country enjoyed peace and achieved prosperity.

His reign began with a lightning-fast invasion of Northern Italy, culminating in the victorious battle of Marignano; in 1516, Francis I concluded a special agreement with the pope (the so-called Bologna Concordat), according to which the king began to partially manage the property of the French church. Francis's attempt to proclaim himself emperor in 1519 ended in failure. And in 1525 he undertook a second campaign in Italy, which ended in the defeat of the French army at the Battle of Pavia. Francis himself was then captured. Having paid a huge ransom, he returned to France and continued to rule the country, abandoning grandiose foreign policy plans.

Civil wars in France. Henry II (1547-1559), succeeding his father on the throne, must have seemed a strange anachronism in Renaissance France. He recaptured Calais from the British and established control over dioceses such as Metz, Toul and Verdun, which had previously belonged to the Holy Roman Empire. This king had a long-term love affair with the court beauty Diana de Poitiers. In 1559 he died fighting in a tournament with one of the nobles.

Henry's wife Catherine de' Medici, who came from a family of famous Italian bankers, played a decisive role in French politics for a quarter of a century after the death of the king. At the same time, her three sons officially ruled, Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III.

The first one is painful Francis II, was engaged to Mary Stuart (Scottish). A year after taking the throne, Francis died and his ten-year-old brother Charles IX took the throne. This boy king was completely under the influence of his mother.

At this time, the power of the French monarchy suddenly began to shake. Francis I began a policy of persecuting non-Protestants. But Calvinism continued to spread widely throughout France. French Calvinists were called Huguenots. The policy of persecution of the Huguenots, which became more severe under Charles, ceased to justify itself. The Huguenots were predominantly townspeople and nobles, often rich and influential.

The country split into two opposing camps.

All the contradictions and conflicts in the country - and the disobedience of the local feudal nobility to the king, and the dissatisfaction of the townspeople with the heavy exactions of royal officials, and the protests of the peasants against taxes and church land ownership, and the desire for independence of the bourgeoisie - all this took on the usual religious slogans of that time led to the beginning Huguenot wars. At the same time, the struggle for power and influence in the country intensified between two side branches of the old Capetian dynasty - Gizami(Catholics) and Bourbons(Huguenots).

The Guise family, ardent defenders of the Catholic faith, was opposed by moderate Catholics like Montmorency and Huguenots like Condé and Coligny. The struggle was punctuated by periods of truces and agreements, under which the Huguenots were given limited rights to be in certain areas and create their own fortifications.

The condition of the third agreement between Catholics and Huguenots was the marriage of the king's sister Margaritas With Henry of Bourbon, the young king of Navarre and the main leader of the Huguenots. Many Huguenot nobles came to the wedding of Henry of Bourbon and Margaret in August 1572. On the night of the feast of St. Bartholomew (August 24) Charles IX organized a terrible massacre of his opponents. Catholics dedicated to the case marked in advance the houses where their future victims were located. It is characteristic that among the killers there were mainly foreign mercenaries. After the first alarm, a terrible massacre began. Many were killed right in their beds. The killings spread to other cities. Henry of Navarre managed to escape, but thousands of his companions were killed

Two years later, Charles IX died and was succeeded by his childless brother. Henry III. There were other contenders for the royal throne. The greatest chances were with Henry of Navarre, but being the leader of the Huguenots, he did not suit the majority of the country's population. Catholics sought to place their leader on the throne Henry of Guise. Fearing for his power, Henry III treacherously killed both Guise and his brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine. This act caused general indignation. Henry III went over to the camp of his other rival, Henry of Navarre, but was soon killed by a fanatical Catholic monk.

Although Henry of Navarre was now the only contender for the throne, in order to become king, he had to convert to Catholicism. Only after this he returned to Paris and was crowned at Chartres in 1594 year. He became the first king Bourbon dynasty - the fifth royal dynasty in French history.

Henry IV's great merit was his acceptance into 1598 year Edict of Nantes- the law on religious tolerance. Catholicism remained the dominant religion, but the Huguenots were officially recognized as a minority with the right to work and self-defense in some areas and cities. This edict stopped the devastation of the country and the flight of the French Huguenots to England and the Netherlands. The Edict of Nantes was drawn up very cunningly: if the balance of power between Catholics and Huguenots changed, it could be revised (which Richelieu later took advantage of).

During the reign Henry IV (1594-1610) order was restored in the country and prosperity was achieved. The king supports major officials, judges, lawyers, and financiers. He allows these people to buy positions for themselves and pass them on to their sons. A powerful apparatus of power is in the hands of the king, allowing him to rule without regard to the whims and whims of the nobles. Henry also attracted large merchants to himself; he strongly supported the development of large-scale production and trade, and founded French colonies in overseas lands. Henry IV was the first of the French kings to begin to be guided in his policy by the national interests of France, and not just by the class interests of the French nobility.

In 1610, the country plunged into deep mourning when it learned that its king had been murdered by the Jesuit monk François Ravaillac. His death threw France back into a state close to the anarchy of the regency, as the young Louis XIII (1610-1643) was only nine years old.

The central political figure in the history of France at this time was his mother, the queen. Maria Medici, who then secured the support of the Bishop of Luzon, Armand Jean du Plessis (who is better known to us as Cardinal Richelieu). IN 1 624 Richelieu became the king's mentor and representative and actually ruled France until the end of his life in 1642 . The beginning of the triumph of absolutism is associated with the name of Richelieu. In Richelieu, the French crown found not only an outstanding statesman, but also one of the prominent theorists of absolute monarchy. In his " Political testament"Richelieu named two main goals that he set for himself when he came to power: " My first goal was the greatness of the king, my second goal was the power of the kingdom" The first minister of Louis XIII directed all his activities towards the implementation of this program. Its main milestones were the attack on the political rights of the Huguenots, who, according to Richelieu, shared power and state with the king. Richelieu considered his task to be the liquidation of the Huguenot state, the deprivation of power of rebellious governors and the strengthening of the institution of general governors-intendants.

Military operations against the Huguenots lasted from 1621 to 1629. In 1628, the Huguenot stronghold was besieged sea ​​port La Rochelle. The fall of La Rochelle and the loss of self-government privileges by the cities weakened the resistance of the Huguenots, and in 1629 they capitulated. Adopted in 1629 " Edict of Grace"confirmed the main text of the Edict of Nantes concerning the right to freely practice Calvinism. All articles that related to the political rights of the Huguenots were repealed. The Huguenots lost their fortresses and the right to maintain their garrisons.

Richelieu began strengthening the state apparatus of the absolute monarchy. The main event in solving this problem was the final approval of the institution of quartermasters.

Locally, the king's policies were hampered by governors and provincial states. Acting as representatives of both royal and local authorities, governors became virtually independent rulers. The quartermasters became the instrument for changing this order. They became plenipotentiary representatives of royal power on the ground. At first, the mission of the quartermasters was temporary, then gradually it became permanent. All the threads of the provincial administration are concentrated in the hands of the intendants. Only the army remains outside their competence.

The First Minister speeds up the economic development of the state. From 1629 to 1642, 22 trading companies. The beginning of French colonial policy dates back to the reign of Richelieu.

In foreign policy, Richelieu consistently defended the national interests of France. Beginning in 1635, France, under his leadership, participated in the Thirty Years' War. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 contributed to France gaining a leading role in international relations in Western Europe.

But 1648 was not the end of the war for France. Spain refused to sign peace with the French monarch. The Franco-Spanish War lasted until 1659 and ended with the victory of France, which received Roussillon and the province of Artois under the Iberian Peace. Thus, the long-standing border dispute between France and Spain was resolved.

Richelieu died in 1642, and a year later Louis XIII died.

To the heir to the throne Louis XIV (1643-1715) I was only five years old at the time. The Queen Mother assumed guardianship duties Anne of Austria. State control was concentrated in her hands and the hands of the Italian Richelieu’s protege Cardinal Mazarin. Mazarin was an active conductor of the king's policies until his death in 1661. He continued Richelieu's foreign policy until the successful conclusion of the Westphalian (1648) and Pyrenees (1659) peace treaties. He was able to solve the problem of preserving the monarchy, especially during the uprisings of the nobility, known as Fronde (1648–1653). The name Fronde comes from the French word for sling. Throwing from a sling in a figurative sense means acting in defiance of authority. In the turbulent events of the Fronde, anti-feudal actions of the masses and part of the bourgeoisie, the conflict of the judicial aristocracy with absolutism, and opposition to the feudal nobility were contradictorily intertwined. Having coped with these movements, absolutism emerged stronger from the political crisis of the Fronde period.

Louis XIV.

After the death of Mazarin, Louis XIV (1643-1715), who had reached the age of 23 by that time, took control of the state into his own hands. Drawing on for 54 years " century of Louis XIV“This is both the apogee of French absolutism and the beginning of its decline. The king plunged headlong into state affairs. He skillfully selected active and intelligent associates for himself. Among them are the Minister of Finance Jean Baptiste Colbert, the Minister of War the Marquis de Louvois, the Minister of Defense Fortifications Sebastian de Vauban and such brilliant generals as the Viscount de Turenne and the Prince of Condé.

Louis formed a large and well-trained army, which, thanks to Vauban, had the best fortresses. A clear hierarchy of ranks, a uniform military uniform, and quartermaster service were introduced in the army. Matchlock muskets were replaced by a hammer-operated gun with a bayonet. All this increased the discipline and combat effectiveness of the army. An instrument of foreign policy, the army, along with the police created at that time, was widely used as an instrument of “internal order.”

With the help of this army, Louis pursued his strategic line during four wars. The hardest was last war– the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) – a desperate attempt to confront all of Europe. An attempt to win the Spanish crown for his grandson ended with the invasion of enemy troops on French soil, the impoverishment of the people and the depletion of the treasury. The country lost all previous conquests. Only a split among the enemy forces and a few very recent victories saved France from complete defeat. At the end of his life, Louis was accused of being “too fond of war.” Thirty-two war years out of Louis's 54-year reign were a heavy burden for France.

The economic life of the country followed a policy of mercantilism. It was especially actively pursued by Colbert, Minister of Finance in 1665-1683. A major organizer and tireless administrator, he tried to put into practice the mercantilist doctrine of the “active balance of trade.” Colbert sought to minimize the import of foreign goods and increase the export of French goods, thus increasing the amount of taxable monetary wealth in the country. Absolutism introduced protectionist duties, subsidized the creation of large manufactories, and granted them various privileges (“royal manufactories”). The production of luxury goods (for example, tapestries, i.e., carpet-pictures at the famous royal Gobelins manufactory), weapons, equipment, and uniforms for the army and navy was especially encouraged.

For active overseas and colonial trade, monopoly trading companies were created with the participation of the state - East India, West India, Levantine, and the construction of the fleet was subsidized.

In North America, the vast territory of the Mississippi basin, called Louisiana, became the possession of France, along with Canada. The importance of the French West Indies Islands (Saint-Domingue, Guadeloupe, Martinique) increased, where plantations began to be created sugar cane, tobacco, cotton, indigo, coffee, based on the labor of black slaves. France took possession of a number of trading posts in India.

Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes, which established religious tolerance. The prisons and galleys were filled with Huguenots. The Protestant areas were hit by dragonnades (dragoon quarters in the houses of the Huguenots, during which the dragoons were allowed “necessary outrages”). As a result, tens of thousands of Protestants fled the country, among them many skilled artisans and wealthy merchants.

The king chose the place of his residence Versailles, where a grandiose palace and park ensemble was created. Louis sought to make Versailles the cultural center of all Europe. The monarchy sought to lead the development of the sciences and arts and use them to maintain the prestige of absolutism. Under him, an opera house, an Academy of Sciences, an Academy of Painting, an Academy of Architecture, an Academy of Music were created, and an observatory was founded. Pensions were paid to scientists and artists.

Under him, absolutism in the history of France reached its apogee. " The state is me».

By the end of the reign of Louis XIV, France was devastated by grueling wars, the goals of which exceeded the capabilities of France, the costs of maintaining a huge army at that time (300-500 thousand people at the beginning of the 18th century versus 30 thousand in the middle of the 17th century), and heavy taxes. Agricultural production fell, industrial production and trade activity decreased. The population of France has decreased significantly.

All these results of the “century of Louis XIV” indicated that French absolutism had exhausted its historical progressive possibilities. The feudal-absolutist system entered a stage of disintegration and decline.

Decline of the monarchy.

In 1715, Louis XIV, already decrepit and old, died.

His five-year-old great-grandson became heir to the French throne Louis XV (1715-1774). While he was a child, the country was ruled by a self-appointed regent, the ambitious Duke of Orleans.

Louis XV tried to imitate his brilliant predecessor, but in almost every respect the reign of Louis XV was a pathetic parody of the reign of the “Sun King”.

The army nurtured by Louvois and Vauban was led by aristocratic officers who sought their posts for the sake of a court career. This had a negative impact on the morale of the troops, although Louis XV himself paid great attention to the army. French troops fought in Spain and took part in two major campaigns against Prussia: the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) and the Seven Years' War (1756–1763).

The royal administration controlled the trade sphere and did not take into account its own interests in this sphere. After the humiliating Peace of Paris (1763), France was forced to give up most of its colonies and renounce its claims to India and Canada. But even then, the port cities of Bordeaux, La Rochelle, Nantes and Le Havre continued to prosper and enrich themselves.

Louis XV said: “ After me - even a flood" He was little concerned about the situation in the country. Louis devoted his time to hunting and his favorites, allowing the latter to interfere in the affairs of the country.

After the death of Louis XV in 1774, the French crown went to his grandson, twenty-year-old Louis XVI. At this time in French history, the need for reform was obvious to many.

Louis XVI appointed Turgot as Comptroller General of Finance. An extraordinary statesman and prominent economic theorist, Turgot tried to implement a program of bourgeois reforms. In 1774-1776. he abolished the regulation of the grain trade, abolished the guild corporations, freed the peasants from the state road corvee and replaced it with a cash land tax that fell on all classes. Turgot harbored plans for new reforms, including the abolition of feudal dues for ransom. But under the pressure of reactionary forces, Turgot was dismissed and his reforms were canceled. Reform “from above” within the framework of absolutism was impossible to solve the pressing problems of the further development of the country.

In 1787-1789 a commercial and industrial crisis unfolded. Its emergence was facilitated by the agreement concluded by French absolutism with England in 1786, which opened the French market to cheaper English products. Decline and stagnation of production engulfed cities and industrial rural areas. The national debt rose from 1.5 billion livres in 1774 to 4.5 billion in 1788. The monarchy found itself on the verge of financial bankruptcy. Bankers refused new loans.

Life in the kingdom seemed peaceful and calm. In search of a way out, the government again turned to attempts at reform, in particular to Turgot’s plans to impose part of the taxes on the privileged classes. A draft of an estate-less direct land tax was developed. Hoping to gain the support of the privileged classes themselves, the monarchy convened a meeting in 1787 notables" - eminent representatives of the classes chosen by the king. However, the notables categorically refused to approve the proposed reforms. They demanded to convene Estates General, which have not met since 1614. At the same time, they wanted to preserve the traditional order of voting in the states, which made it possible to carry out decisions that were beneficial to them. The privileged elite hoped to occupy a dominant position in the Estates General and achieve a limitation of royal power in their own interests.

But these calculations did not come true. The slogan of convening the Estates General was taken up by wide circles of the third estate, led by the bourgeoisie, which came up with its own political program.

The convening of the Estates General was scheduled for the spring of 1789. The number of deputies of the third estate doubled, but the important question of the voting procedure remained open.

The deputies of the third estate, feeling popular support and pushed by it, went on the offensive. They rejected the class principle of representation and on June 17 declared themselves National Assembly, i.e. plenipotentiary representative of the entire nation. On June 20, having gathered in the large ballroom (the regular meeting room was closed and guarded by soldiers by order of the king), the deputies of the national assembly vowed not to disperse until a constitution was drawn up.

In response to this, on June 23, Louis XVI announced the abolition of the decisions of the Third Estate. However, the deputies of the third estate refused to obey the king's order. They were joined by some of the deputies of the nobility and clergy. The king was forced to order the remaining deputies of the privileged classes to join the National Assembly. On July 9, 1789, the Assembly proclaimed itself Constituent Assembly.

Court circles and Louis XVI himself decided to put a stop to the beginning revolution by force. Troops were brought to Paris.

Wary of the entry of troops, the Parisians understood that the dispersal of the National Assembly was being prepared. On July 13, the alarm sounded and the city was engulfed in uprising. By the morning of July 14, the city was in the hands of the rebels. The culmination and final act of the uprising was the assault and storming of the Bastille– a powerful eight-tower fortress with high 30-meter walls. Since the time of Louis XIV, it served as a political prison and became a symbol of arbitrariness and despotism.

The storming of the Bastille was the beginning of the history of France French Revolution and her first victory.

The onslaught of peasant uprisings prompted the Constituent Assembly to solve the agrarian problem - the main socio-economic issue of the French Revolution. The decrees of August 4-11 abolished church tithes, the right of seigneurial hunting on peasant lands, etc. free of charge. The main “real” duties associated with land are qualifications, shampars, etc. were declared the property of the lords and subject to redemption. The Assembly promised to establish the terms of the buyout later.

On August 26, the Assembly adopted “ Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen" - introduction to the future constitution. The influence of this document on the minds of his contemporaries was extremely great. The 17 articles of the Declaration in succinct formulas proclaimed the ideas of the Enlightenment as the principles of the revolution. " People are born and remain free and equal in rights", read her first article. " Natural and inalienable“Security and resistance to oppression were also recognized as human rights. The Declaration proclaimed the equality of all before the law and the right to occupy any position, freedom of speech and press, and religious tolerance.

Immediately after the storming of the Bastille, the emigration of counter-revolutionary aristocrats began. Louis XVI, having declared his accession to the revolution, in fact refused to approve the Declaration of Rights and did not approve the decrees of August 4-11. He declared: " I will never agree to rob my clergy and my nobility».

Military units loyal to the king were gathered at Versailles. The masses of Paris grew alarmed about the fate of the revolution. The ongoing economic crisis, food shortages, and high prices increased the discontent of Parisians. On October 5, about 20 thousand city residents moved to Versailles, the residence of the royal family and the National Assembly. Parisians from the working classes played an active role - about 6 thousand women who took part in the campaign were the first to march to Versailles.

The Parisian National Guard followed the people, carrying away their commander, Marshal Lafayette. At Versailles, people broke into the palace, pushed back the royal guards, demanded bread and the king's move to the capital.

On October 6, yielding to popular demand, the royal family moved from Versailles to Paris, where it was under the supervision of the revolutionary capital. The National Assembly also settled in Paris. Louis XVI was forced to unconditionally approve the Declaration of Rights, authorizing the decrees of August 4-11, 1789.

Having strengthened its position, the Constituent Assembly energetically continued the bourgeois reorganization of the country. Following the principle of civil equality, the Assembly abolished class privileges, abolished the institution of hereditary nobility, noble titles and coats of arms. By asserting freedom of enterprise, it destroyed state regulation and the guild system. The abolition of internal customs and the 1786 trade agreement with England contributed to the formation of a national market and its protection from foreign competition.

By decree of November 2, 1789, the Constituent Assembly confiscated church property. Declared national property, they were put on sale to cover the national debt.

In September 1791, the Constituent Assembly completed the drafting of a constitution that established a bourgeois constitutional monarchy in France. Legislative power was vested in a unicameral Legislative Assembly, executive - to the hereditary monarch and the ministers appointed by him. The king could temporarily reject laws approved by the Assembly, having the right of a “suspending veto”. France was divided into 83 departments, power in which was exercised by elected councils and directories, in cities and villages - by elected municipalities. The new unified judicial system was based on the election of judges and the participation of juries.

The election system introduced by the Assembly was by qualification and two-stage. “Passive” citizens who did not meet the qualification conditions were not given political rights. Only “active” citizens - men over 25 years of age, paying a direct tax of at least 1.5-3 livres - had the right to vote and were members of the National Guard created in cities and villages. Their number was slightly more than half of adult men.

At this time, the importance of political clubs was great - in fact, they played the role of political parties that had not yet arisen in France. Created in 1789, the Jacobin Club, who met in the hall of the former monastery of St. James. It united supporters of the revolution of different orientations (including Mirabeau, And Robespierre), but in the early years it was dominated by the influence of moderate monarchist constitutionalists.

Was more democratic Cordeliers Club. “Passive” citizens, women, were allowed into it. Supporters of universal suffrage had a great influence in it Danton, Desmoulins, Marat, Hebert.

On the night of June 21, 1791 years, the royal family secretly left Paris and moved to the eastern border. Relying on the army stationed here, on detachments of emigrants and the support of Austria, Louis hoped to disperse the National Assembly and restore his unlimited power. Identified on the way and detained in the town of Varennes, the fugitives were returned to Paris under the protection of the National Guard and the alarm of many thousands of armed peasants.

Now the democratic movement took on a republican character: the monarchical illusions of the people were dispelled. The center of the republican movement in Paris was the Cordeliers Club. However, moderate monarchist constitutionalists strongly opposed these demands. " It's time to end the revolution now- said one of their leaders in the Assembly Barnav, - she has reached her extreme limit».

On July 17, 1791, the National Guard, using the “martial law” law, opened fire on unarmed demonstrators who, at the call of the Cordeliers, had gathered on the Champ de Mars to accept the Republican petition. 50 of them were killed and several hundred were wounded.

Political divisions in the former Third Estate also caused a split in the Jacobin Club. More radical bourgeois figures remained in the club who wanted to continue the revolution together with the people. It emerged from moderate liberal monarchists, supporters of Lafayette and Barnave, who wanted to end the revolution and strengthen the constitutional monarchy. They founded their own club in the building of the former Feuillant monastery.

In September 1791, the Assembly approved the final text of the constitution adopted by Louis XVI. Having exhausted its functions, the Constituent Assembly dispersed. It was replaced by a Legislative Assembly elected on the basis of a qualification system, the first meeting of which took place on October 1, 1791.

The right wing of the meeting consisted of Feuillants, the left consisted mainly of members of the Jacobin Club. Among the Jacobins then the deputies from the department prevailed Gironde. Hence the name of this political group - Girondins.

On the basis of hostility to the revolution, the contradictions between France's neighbors in the east - Austria and Prussia - seemed to be smoothed out. On August 27, 1791, the Austrian Emperor Leopold II and the Prussian King Frederick William II signed a declaration at the Saxon Pillnitz Castle, in which they declared their readiness to provide military assistance to Louis XVI and called on other European monarchs to do the same. On February 7, 1792, Austria and Prussia entered into a military alliance against France. The threat of foreign intervention loomed over France.

In France itself, from the end of 1791, the question of war became one of the main ones. Louis XVI and his court wanted war - they counted on intervention and the fall of the revolution as a result of the military defeat of France. The Girondins sought war - they hoped that the war would consolidate the decisive victory of the bourgeoisie over the nobility and at the same time push back the social problems posed by the popular movement. Mistakenly assessing the strength of France and the situation in European countries, the Girondins hoped for an easy victory and that the people would rise up against their “tyrants” when French troops appeared.

Robespierre, supported by some of the Jacobins, including Marat, spoke out against the militant agitation of the Girondins. Realizing the inevitability of war with the European monarchies, he considered it reckless to hasten its start. Robespierre also disputed the assertion Brisso about an immediate uprising in countries where French troops will enter; " Nobody likes armed missionaries ».

The majority of Feuillants were also against the war, fearing that in any case the war would overthrow the regime of constitutional monarchy they had created.

The influence of the war supporters prevailed. On April 20, France declared war on Austria. The start of the war was unsuccessful for France. The old army was disorganized, half of the officers emigrated, and the soldiers did not trust their commanders. The volunteers who joined the troops were poorly armed and untrained. On July 6, Prussia entered the war. The invasion of enemy troops into French territory was inexorably approaching, the enemies of the revolution were expecting it, and the royal court became their center. Queen Marie Antoinette, who was the sister of the Austrian Emperor, forwarded French military plans to the Austrians.

Danger looms over France. The revolutionary people were seized with patriotic enthusiasm. Volunteer battalions were hastily formed. In Paris, 15 thousand people signed up within a week. Detachments of federates arrived from the provinces, despite the king's veto. These days, for the first time, the Marseillaise- a patriotic song of the revolution, written back in April Rouget de Lisle m and brought to Paris by a battalion of Marseille federates.

In Paris, preparations began for an uprising with the goal of removing Louis XVI from power and developing a new constitution. On the night of August 10, 1792, the alarm sounded over Paris - the uprising began. The commissioners elected by the Parisians gathered at the town hall. They formed the Paris Commune, which took power in the capital. The rebels took possession of the royal palace of the Tuileries. The Assembly deprived Louis XVI of the throne, the Commune, with its power, imprisoned the royal family in the Temple Castle.

The political privileges of the upper bourgeoisie, enshrined in the constitution of 1791, also fell. All men over 21 years of age who were not in personal service were allowed to participate in the elections to the Convention. Lafayette and many other Feuillant leaders fled abroad. The Girondins became the leading force in the Assembly and in the new government.

On September 20, the National Convention began its work; On September 21, he adopted a decree abolishing royal power; On September 22, France was declared a republic. Its constitution was to be drafted by the Convention. However, from the very first steps of his activity, a fierce political struggle broke out within him.

On the upper benches of the Convention sat the deputies who made up its left wing. They were called the Mountain or Montagnards (from the French montagne - mountain). The most prominent leaders of the Mountain were Robespierre, Marat, Danton, Saint-Just. Most Montagnards were members of the Jacobin Club. Many Jacobins adhered to egalitarian ideas and strove for a democratic republic.

The right wing of the Convention was formed by Girondist deputies. The Girondins opposed the further deepening of the revolution.

The approximately 500 deputies who made up the center of the Convention were not part of any grouping; they were called the “plain” or “swamp”. During the first months of the Convention, the Plain strongly supported the Gironde.

By the end of 1792, the question of the fate of the king was at the center of the political struggle. Brought to trial by the Convention, Louis XVI was found “guilty” of treason, relations with emigrants and foreign courts, and malicious intent against the freedom of the nation and the general security of the state. January 21, 1793 year he was guillotined.

In the spring of 1793, the revolution entered a period of new acute crisis. In March, a peasant revolt broke out in northwestern France, reaching unprecedented strength in the Vendée. The royalists took control of the uprising. The Vendée rebellion, which raised tens of thousands of peasants, caused bloody excesses and for several years became an open wound of the republic.

In the spring of 1793, the country's military situation deteriorated sharply. After the execution of Louis XVI, France found itself at war not only with Austria and Prussia, but also with Holland, Spain, Portugal, the German and Italian states.

The danger that again loomed over the republic required the mobilization of all the forces of the people, for which the Gironde was incapable.

May 31 – June 2 An uprising broke out in Paris. Forced to submit to the rebellious people, the Convention decided to arrest Brissot, Vergniaud and other leaders of the Gironde. (total 31 people). They came to political leadership in the republic Jacobins.

On June 24, 1793, the Convention adopted a new constitution for France. It provided for a republic with a unicameral Legislative Assembly, direct elections and universal suffrage for men over 21, and proclaimed democratic rights and freedoms. Article 119 declared non-interference in the internal affairs of other nations to be a principle of French foreign policy. Later, on February 4, 1794, the Convention adopted a decree abolishing slavery in the colonies.

The leading wing of the ruling Jacobin party were the Robespierrists. Their ideal was a republic of small and medium-sized producers, in which state-supported strict morality moderates "private interest" and prevents extremes of wealth inequality.

In the autumn-winter of 1793, a movement of moderates took shape among the Jacobins. The leader of this movement was Georges-Jacques Danton, and its talented publicist was Camille Desmoulins. One of the most prominent Montagnards, tribune of the first years of the revolution, Danton considered it natural to increase wealth and freely enjoy its benefits; his fortune increased 10 times during the revolution.

On the opposite flank were the “extreme” revolutionaries - Chaumette, Hébert and others. They sought further equalizing measures, confiscation and division of property of the enemies of the revolution.

The struggle between the currents became more and more fierce. In March 1794, Hébert and his closest associates appeared before a revolutionary tribunal and were guillotined. Soon their fate was shared by the ardent defender of the poor, the prosecutor of the Commune Chaumette.

At the beginning of April, a blow fell on the leaders of the moderates - Danton, Desmoulins and several of their like-minded people. They all died on the guillotine.

The Robespierrists saw that the position of Jacobin power was weakening, but could not put forward a program that could gain broad public support.

In May-June 1794, the Robespierrists tried to unite the people around a civil religion in the spirit of Rousseau. At the insistence of Robespierre, the Convention established the “cult of the Supreme Being,” which included veneration of republican virtues, justice, equality, freedom, and love of the fatherland. The bourgeoisie did not need the new cult; the masses remained indifferent to it.

Trying to strengthen their positions, the Robespierrists passed a law on toughening terror on June 10. This multiplied the number of dissatisfied people and accelerated the formation of a conspiracy in the Convention to overthrow Robespierre and his supporters. On July 28 (10 Thermidor), outlawed Robespierre, Saint-Just and their associates (22 people in total) were guillotined. On 11-12 Thermidor their fate was shared by 83 more people, most of them members of the Commune. Jacobin dictatorship fell.

In August 1795, the Thermidorian Convention adopted a new French constitution to replace the Jacobin one, which was never implemented. While maintaining the republic, the new constitution introduced a bicameral legislative body ( Council of Five Hundred And Council of Elders of 250 members are at least 40 years old), two-stage elections, age and property qualifications. Executive power was vested in a five-member Directory elected by the Legislative Corps. The Constitution confirmed the confiscation of emigrant possessions and guaranteed the property of buyers of foreign property.

Four years Directory mode in the history of France were a time of socio-economic and political instability. France was worried difficult period adaptation to new conditions (in the long term, deeply favorable for its progress). The war, the English blockade and the decline of the maritime colonial trade that flourished until 1789, and the acute financial crisis complicated this process.

The owners wanted stability and order, strong power that would protect them both from the revolutionary uprisings of the people and from the claims of supporters of the Bourbon restoration and the old order.

The most suitable person to carry out a military coup turned out to be Napoleon Bonaparte. Influential financiers provided him with money.

The coup happened 18th Brumaire(November 9, 1799). Power passed to three temporary consuls, virtually headed by Bonaparte. The coup of the 18th Brumaire in the history of France opened the way for a regime of personal power - military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Consulate (1799-1804)

Already in December 1799 year a new one was adopted French constitution. Formally, France remained a republic with a very complex branched power structure. The executive power, the rights and powers of which were significantly expanded, was vested in three consuls. The first consul - and this was Napoleon Bonaparte - was elected for 10 years. He concentrated virtually all executive power in his hands. The second and third consuls had the right of advisory vote. For the first time, consuls were identified by name in the text of the constitution.

All men who had reached the age of 21 enjoyed the right to vote, but they did not choose deputies, but candidates for deputies. From among them, the government selected members of the local administration and higher legislative bodies. Legislative power was distributed among several bodies - the State Council, the Tribunate, the Legislative Corps - and made dependent on the executive power. All bills, having passed these levels, went to the Senate, whose members were approved by Napoleon himself, and then went to the first consul for signature.

The government also took the legislative initiative. In addition, the constitution gave the first consul the right to introduce bills directly to the Senate, bypassing the legislative bodies. All ministers were subordinate directly to Napoleon.

In fact, this was the regime of Napoleon’s personal power, but it was possible to impose a dictatorship only by preserving the main gains of the revolutionary years: the destruction of feudal relations, the redistribution of land property and a change in its nature.

The new constitution in French history was approved by plebiscite (popular vote). The results of the plebiscite were predetermined. The voting took place publicly, in front of representatives of the new government; many then already voted not for the constitution, but for Napoleon, who gained considerable popularity.

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769 -1821)- an outstanding statesman and military figure of the time when the bourgeoisie was still a young, rising class and sought to consolidate its gains. He was a man with an unyielding will and an extraordinary mind. Under Napoleon, a whole galaxy of talented military leaders emerged ( Murat, Lannes, Davout,Her and many others).

A new plebiscite in 1802 secured the post of first consul for life to Napoleon Bonaparte. He was given the right to appoint a successor, dissolve the Legislative Corps, and personally approve peace treaties.

The strengthening of the power of Napoleon Bonaparte was facilitated by continuous, successful wars for France. In 1802, Napoleon's birthday was announced national holiday Since 1803, his image has appeared on coins.

First Empire (1804-1814)

The power of the first consul increasingly took on the character of a one-man dictatorship. The logical result was the proclamation of Napoleon Bonaparte in May 1804 Emperor of France under the name Napoleon I. He was solemnly crowned by the Pope himself.

In 1807, the Tribunate, the only body where there was opposition to the Bonapartist regime, was abolished. A magnificent court was created, court titles were restored, and the title of marshal of the empire was introduced. The atmosphere, morals, and life of the French court imitated the old pre-revolutionary royal court. The address “citizen” disappeared from everyday life, but the words “sovereign” and “your imperial majesty” appeared.

In 1802, a law was issued on amnesty for emigrant nobles. The old aristocracy, returning from emigration, gradually strengthened its position. More than half of the prefects appointed in Napoleonic times belonged to the old nobility by origin.

Along with this, the French emperor, trying to strengthen his regime, created a new elite; it received noble titles from him and owed everything to him.

From 1808 to 1814, 3,600 titles of nobility were granted; Lands were distributed both in France and abroad - land ownership was an indicator of wealth and social status.

However, the revival of titles did not mean a return to the old feudal structure of society. Class privileges were not restored; Napoleon's legislation consolidated legal equality.

Napoleon made all his brothers kings in the countries of Europe conquered by France. In 1805 he declared himself king of Italy. At the height of his power in 1810, Napoleon I, due to the childlessness of Empress Josephine, began searching for a new wife in one of the reigning houses of feudal Europe. He was denied marriage to the Russian princess.

But the Austrian court agreed to the marriage of Napoleon I with the Austrian princess Marie-Louise. With this marriage, Napoleon hoped to enter the family of “legitimate” monarchs of Europe and establish his own dynasty.

Napoleon sought to solve the most acute internal political problem since the beginning of the revolution - the relationship between the bourgeois state and the church. In 1801, a concordat was concluded with Pope Pius VII. Catholicism was declared the religion of the majority of the French. The separation of church and state was destroyed, the state again obliged to provide maintenance for clergy and restore religious holidays.

The Pope, in turn, recognized the sold church lands as the property of the new owners and agreed that the highest church officials should be appointed by the government. The Church introduced a special prayer for the health of the consul and then the emperor. Thus, the church became the support of the Bonapartist regime.

During the years of the Consulate and the Empire in the history of France, the democratic gains of the revolution were mostly eliminated. Elections and plebiscites were formal in nature, and declarations of political freedom became convenient demagogy to cover up the despotic nature of government.

At the time Napoleon came to power, the financial situation of the country was extremely difficult: the treasury was empty, civil servants had not received salaries for a long time. Streamlining finances has become one of the government's top priorities. By increasing indirect taxes the government managed to stabilize financial system. Direct taxes (on capital) were reduced, which was in the interests of the big bourgeoisie.

Successful wars and protectionist policies boosted exports. Napoleon imposed trade terms favorable to France on European states. As a result of the victorious march of the French army, all European markets were open to French goods. Protectionist customs policy protected French entrepreneurs from competition from English goods.

In general, the time of the Consulate and the Empire was favorable for the industrial development of France.

The regime established in France under Napoleon Bonaparte was called " Bonapartism" Napoleon's dictatorship was a special form of bourgeois state, in which the bourgeoisie itself was excluded from direct participation in political power. Maneuvering between various social forces and relying on a powerful apparatus of government, Napoleon's power gained a certain independence in relation to social classes.

In an effort to unite the majority of the nation around the regime and present himself as a spokesman for national interests, Napoleon adopted the idea of ​​national unity, born of the French Revolution. However, this was no longer a defense of the principles of national sovereignty, but propaganda of the national exclusivity of the French, the hegemony of France in the international arena. Therefore, in the field of foreign policy, Bonapartism is characterized by pronounced nationalism. The years of the Consulate and the First Empire were marked by almost continuous bloody wars waged by Napoleonic France with the states of Europe. In the conquered countries and vassal states of France, Napoleon pursued a policy that was aimed at turning them into a market for French goods and a source of raw materials for French industry. Napoleon repeatedly said: “ My principle is France first" In the dependent states, in the interests of the French bourgeoisie, economic development was slowed down by imposing unfavorable trade deals and establishing monopoly prices for French goods. Huge indemnities were siphoned out of these states.

Already by 1806, Napoleon Bonaparte had formed a huge empire, reminiscent of the times of Charlemagne. In 1806, Austria and Prussia were defeated. At the end of October 1806, Napoleon entered Berlin. Here, on November 21, 1806, he signed a decree on the continental blockade, which played a big role in the fate of European countries.

According to the decree throughout French Empire and its dependent countries, trade with the British Isles was strictly prohibited. Violation of this decree and smuggling of English goods were punishable by severe repressions, including the death penalty. With this blockade, France sought to crush the economic potential of England and bring it to its knees.

However, Napoleon did not achieve his goal - the economic destruction of England. Although the English economy experienced difficulties during these years, they were not catastrophic: England owned vast colonies, had well-established contacts with the American continent and, despite all the prohibitions, made extensive use of smuggled trade in English goods in Europe.

The blockade was difficult for the economies of European countries. French industry could not replace the cheaper and higher quality goods of English enterprises. The break with England gave rise to economic crises in European countries, which led to restrictions on the sale of French goods in them. The blockade to a certain extent contributed to the growth of French industry, but very soon it became clear that French industry could not do without English industrial products and raw materials.

The blockade paralyzed the life of such large port cities of France as Marseille, Le Havre, Nantes, and Toulon for a long time. In 1810, a system of licenses was introduced for the right to limited trade in English goods, but the cost of these licenses was high. Napoleon used the blockade as a means of protecting the developing French economy and as a source of revenue for the treasury.

At the end of the first decade of the 19th century, the crisis of the First Empire in France began. Its manifestations were periodic economic downturns and the growing fatigue of broad sections of the population from continuous wars. In 1810-1811, an acute economic crisis began in France. The negative consequences of the continental blockade were felt: there was a shortage of raw materials and industrial products, and the cost of production was rising. The bourgeoisie moved into opposition to the Bonapartist regime. The final blow to Napoleonic France was dealt by the military defeats of 1812-1814.

On October 16-19, 1813, a decisive battle took place near Leipzig between Napoleon's army and the united army of the allied states of Europe. The battle of Leipzig was called the Battle of the Nations. Napoleon's army was defeated.

On March 31, 1814, the Allied army entered Paris. Napoleon abdicated the throne in favor of his son. However, the Senate, under pressure from European powers, decided to once again elevate the Bourbon dynasty - the Count of Provence, brother of the executed Louis XVI - to the French throne. Napoleon was exiled for life to the island of Elba.

On May 30, 1814, a peace treaty was signed in Paris: France was deprived of all territorial acquisitions and returned to the borders of 1792. The agreement provided for the convening of an international congress in Vienna to finally resolve all issues related to the collapse of the Napoleonic empire.

10 months of Bourbon rule was enough for pro-Napoleonic sentiment to revive again. Louis XVIII published a constitutional charter in May 1814. By " Charters of 1814“The king’s power was limited by a parliament consisting of two chambers. The upper house was appointed by the king, and the lower house was elected based on a high property qualification.

This ensured power for large landowners, nobles, and partly the upper strata of the bourgeoisie. However, the old French aristocracy and clergy demanded from the government the complete restoration of feudal rights and privileges and the return of land holdings.

The threat of the restoration of feudal orders and the dismissal of more than 20 thousand Napoleonic officers and officials caused an explosion of discontent with the Bourbons.

Napoleon took advantage of this situation. He also took into account the fact that negotiations at the Congress of Vienna progressed with difficulty: acute disagreements emerged between the recent allies in the fight against Napoleonic France.

On March 1, 1815, with a thousand guardsmen, Napoleon landed in the south of France and launched a victorious campaign against Paris. All along the way, French military units went over to his side. On March 20 he entered Paris. The Empire was restored. However, Napoleon could not resist the enormous forces of England, Russia, Prussia and Austria.

The Allies had a huge superiority of forces, and on June 18, 1815, at the Battle of Waterloo (near Brussels), Napoleon's army was finally defeated. Napoleon abdicated the throne, surrendered to the British and was soon exiled to the island of St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean, where he died in 1821.

The defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte's army Battle of Waterloo led to the second restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France. Louis XVIII was returned to the throne. According to the Peace of Paris of 1815, France had to pay an indemnity of 700 million francs and maintain occupation troops (they were withdrawn in 1818 after the payment of the indemnity).

Restoration was marked by a political reaction in the country. Thousands of emigrant nobles who returned with the Bourbons demanded reprisals against political figures from the times of the revolution and the Napoleonic regime, and the restoration of their feudal rights and privileges.

“White terror” unfolded in the country, and it took especially cruel forms in the south, where royalist gangs killed and persecuted people known as Jacobins and liberals.

However, a complete return to the past was no longer possible. The Restoration regime did not encroach on those changes in the distribution of land property that occurred as a result of the Great French Revolution and were consolidated during the years of the First Empire. At the same time, the titles (but not class privileges) of the old nobility were restored, which to a large extent managed to preserve their land ownership. Lands confiscated by the revolution, but not sold in 1815, were returned to the emigrant nobles. The titles of nobility granted under Napoleon I were also recognized.

From the beginning of the 1820s, the influence on state policy of the most reactionary part of the nobility and clergy, who did not want to adapt to the conditions of post-revolutionary France and were thinking about the most complete return to the old order, increased. In 1820, the heir to the throne, the Duke of Berry, was killed by the artisan Louvel. This event was used by the reaction to attack constitutional principles. Censorship was restored, education was placed under the control of the Catholic Church.

Louis XVIII died in 1824. Under the name Charles X his brother, Count d'Artois, ascended the throne. He was called the king of emigrants. Charles X began to pursue an openly pro-noble policy and thereby completely upset the balance that had developed in the first years of the Restoration between the top of the bourgeoisie and the nobility in favor of the latter.

In 1825, a law was passed on monetary compensation to emigrant nobles for the lands they lost during the revolution (25 thousand people, mainly representatives of the old nobility, received compensation in the amount of 1 billion francs). At the same time, a “blasphemy law” was issued, which provided for severe punishment for actions against religion and the church, including the death penalty by quartering and wheeling.

In August 1829, a personal friend of the king, one of the inspirers, became the head of government. white terror» 1815-1817 Polignac. Polignac's ministry was one of the most reactionary in all the years of the Restoration regime. All its members belonged to ultra-royalists. The very fact of the formation of such a ministry caused indignation in the country. The Chamber of Deputies demanded the resignation of the ministry. In response, the king interrupted the meeting of the chamber.

Public discontent was intensified by the industrial depression that followed the economic crisis of 1826 and the high cost of bread.

In such a situation, Charles X decided to carry out a coup d'etat. On July 25, 1830, the king signed ordinances (decrees), which were a direct violation of the Charter of 1814. The Chamber of Deputies was dissolved, and the right to vote was henceforth granted only to large landowners. The ordinances abolished freedom of the press by introducing a system of prior permission for periodicals.

The Restoration regime clearly sought to restore the absolutist system in the country. In the face of such a danger, the bourgeoisie had to decide to fight.

July bourgeois revolution of 1830. "Three glorious days."

On July 26, 1830, the orders of Charles X were published in newspapers. Paris responded to them with violent demonstrations. The very next day, an armed uprising began in Paris: the streets of the city were covered with barricades. Almost every tenth resident of Paris participated in the battles. Part of the government forces went over to the side of the rebels. On July 29, the royal Tuileries Palace was taken in battle. The revolution has won. Charles X fled to England.

Power passed into the hands of the Provisional Government, created by deputies of the liberal bourgeoisie; it was headed by the leaders of the liberals - banker Laffite And General Lafayette. The big bourgeoisie did not want and was afraid of the republic; it advocated the preservation of the monarchy, led by the Orleans dynasty, traditionally close to bourgeois circles. July 31 Louis Philippe d'Orléans was declared governor of the kingdom, and on August 7 - king of France.

The July Revolution finally resolved the dispute: which social class should have political dominance in France - the nobility or the bourgeoisie - in favor of the latter. A bourgeois monarchy was established in the country; It was no coincidence that the new king Louis Philippe, the largest forest owner and financier, was called the “bourgeois king.”

Unlike the constitution of 1814, which was declared as a grant of royal power, the new constitution is “ Charter of 1830“- was declared an inalienable property of the people. The King, the new charter declared, ruled not by divine right, but by invitation of the French people; from now on, he could not repeal or suspend laws, and lost the right of legislative initiative, being the head of the executive branch. Members of the House of Peers had to be elected, just like members of the Lower House.

The “Charter of 1830” proclaimed freedom of the press and assembly. Age and property qualifications were lowered. Under Louis Philippe, the financial bourgeoisie and big bankers dominated. The financial aristocracy received high positions in the state apparatus. She enjoyed huge government subsidies, various benefits and privileges that were provided to railway and commercial companies. All this increased the budget deficit, which became a chronic phenomenon under the July Monarchy. Its consequence was a steady increase in public debt.

Both were in the interests of the financial bourgeoisie: government loans, which the government used to cover the deficit, were given at high interest rates and were a sure source of its enrichment. The growth of public debt increased the political influence of the financial aristocracy and the government's dependence on it.

The July Monarchy resumed the conquest of Algeria, which had begun under Charles X. The population of Algeria offered stubborn resistance; many “Algerian” generals of the French army, including Cavaignac, became famous for their cruelties in this war.

In 1847, Algeria was conquered and became one of France's largest colonies.

In the same 1847, a cyclical economic crisis broke out in France, which caused a sharp decline in production, a shock to the entire monetary system and an acute financial crisis (the gold reserves of the French Bank fell from 320 million francs in 1845 to 42 million at the beginning of 1848), a huge increase government deficit, a wide wave of bankruptcies. The banquet campaign launched by the opposition covered the entire country: in September-October 1847, about 70 banquets were held with 17 thousand participants.

The country was on the eve of a revolution - the third in a row since the end of the 18th century.

On December 28, the legislative session of parliament opened. It took place in an extremely stormy atmosphere. Domestic and foreign policies were subject to sharp criticism from opposition leaders. However, their demands were rejected, and the next banquet of supporters electoral reform, scheduled for February 22, 1848, is prohibited.

Nevertheless, thousands of Parisians took to the streets and squares of the city on February 22, which became rallying points for a government-banned demonstration. Clashes with the police began, the first barricades appeared, and their number quickly increased. On February 24, all of Paris was covered with barricades, all important strategic points were in the hands of the rebels. Louis Philippe abdicated the throne in favor of his young grandson, the Count of Paris, and fled to England. The Tuileries Palace was captured by the rebels, the royal throne was dragged to the Place de la Bastille and burned.

An attempt was made to preserve the monarchy by establishing the regency of the Duchess of Orleans, mother of the Count of Paris. The Chamber of Deputies defended the regency rights of the Duchess of Orleans. However, these plans were thwarted by the rebels. They burst into the meeting room of the Chamber of Deputies shouting: “No regency, no king! Long live the republic!” Deputies were forced to agree to the election of a Provisional Government. The February Revolution was victorious.

The de facto head of the Provisional Government was a moderate liberal, a famous French romantic poet. A. Lamartine, who took over the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs. Workers were included in the Provisional Government as ministers without portfolio Alexander Albert, member of secret republican societies, and popular petty-bourgeois socialist Louis Blanc. The provisional government was of a coalition nature.

February 25, 1848 The Provisional Government proclaimed France a republic. A few days later, a decree was issued introducing universal suffrage for men over 21 years of age.

On May 4, the Constituent Assembly opened. On November 4, 1948, the Constituent Assembly adopted the constitution of the Second Republic. Legislative power belonged to a unicameral Legislative Assembly, elected for 3 years on the basis of universal suffrage for men over 21 years of age. The executive branch was represented by the president, who was elected not by parliament, but by popular vote for 4 years (without the right of re-election) and was endowed with enormous power: he formed the government, appointed and removed officials, and led the armed forces of the state. The President was independent of the Legislative Assembly, but could not dissolve it and cancel the decisions taken by the assembly.

Presidential elections were scheduled for December 10, 1848. The nephew of Napoleon I won - Louis Napoleon Bonaparte. He had already tried to seize power in the country twice before.

Louis Napoleon waged a frank struggle to move from the presidential chair to the imperial throne. On December 2, 1851, Louis Napoleon carried out a coup d'etat. The Legislative Assembly was dissolved and a state of siege was introduced in Paris. All power in the country was transferred to the hands of the president, who was elected for 10 years. As a result of the coup d'etat of 1851, a Bonapartist dictatorship was established in France. A year after the usurpation of power by Louis Napoleon, on December 2, 1852, he was proclaimed emperor under the name Napoleon III.

The time of empire is a chain of wars, aggressions, conquests and colonial expeditions of French troops in Africa and Europe, Asia, America, Oceania in order to establish French hegemony in Europe and strengthen its colonial power. Military operations continued in Algeria. The Algerian question played an increasingly important role in the life of France. In 1853, New Caledonia became a colony. Since 1854, military expansion was carried out in Senegal. French troops, together with English ones, fought in China. France actively participated in the “opening” of Japan to foreign capital in 1858. In 1858, the French invasion of South Vietnam began. The French company began construction of the Suez Canal in 1859 (opened in 1869).

Franco-Prussian War.

The ruling court circles of Napoleon III decided to raise the prestige of the dynasty through a victorious war with Prussia. Under the auspices of Prussia, the unification of the German states successfully took place. A powerful militaristic state grew up on the eastern borders of France - the North German Union, whose ruling circles openly sought to seize the rich and strategically important regions of France - Alsace and Lorraine.

Napoleon III decided to prevent the final creation of a unified German state by war with Prussia. Chancellor of the North German Union O. Bismarck was intensively preparing for the final stage of German reunification. The saber-rattling in Paris only made it easier for Bismarck to implement his plan to create a unified German empire through war with France. Unlike France, where Bonapartist military leaders made a lot of noise but cared little about the combat effectiveness of the army, in Berlin they secretly but purposefully prepared for war, rearmed the army and carefully developed strategic plans for upcoming military operations.

On July 19, 1870, France declared war on Prussia. Napoleon III, when starting the war, miscalculated his forces. “We are ready, we are absolutely ready,” the French Minister of War assured the members of the Legislative Corps. It was bragging. Disorder and confusion reigned everywhere. The army had no general leadership, there was no definite plan for waging war. Not only soldiers, but also officers needed the bare necessities. The officers were given 60 francs each to purchase revolvers from merchants. There were not even maps of the theater of operations on French territory, since it was assumed that the war would be fought on Prussian territory.

From the very first days of the war, Prussia's overwhelming superiority was revealed. She was ahead of the French in mobilizing troops and concentrating them near the border. The Prussians had an almost double numerical superiority. Their command persistently carried out the previously developed war plan.

The Prussians almost immediately cut the French army into two parts: one part, under the command of Marshal Bazaine, retreated to the Metz fortress and was besieged there, the other, under the command of Marshal MacMahon and the emperor himself, was thrown back to Sedan under the onslaught of a large Prussian army. Near Sedan, near the Belgian border, on September 2, 1870, a battle took place that decided the outcome of the war. The Prussian army defeated the French. Three thousand French fell in the battle of Sedan. McMahon's 80,000-strong army and Napoleon III himself were captured.

The news of the emperor's capture shook Paris. On September 4, crowds of people filled the streets of the capital. At their request, France was proclaimed a republic. Power passed to the Provisional Government of National Defense, which represented a wide bloc of political forces opposing the empire - from monarchists to radical republicans. In response, Prussia made openly aggressive demands.

The Republicans who came to power considered it dishonorable to accept Prussian conditions. After all, the republic, even during the revolution of the late 18th century, had earned a reputation as a patriotic regime, and the republicans were afraid that the republic would be suspected of betraying national interests. But the scale of the losses suffered by France in this war left no hope for an early victory. On September 16, Prussian troops appeared in the vicinity of Paris. Within a short time they occupied the entire north-east of France. For some time, France remained defenseless against the enemy. The government's efforts to restore military potential did not bear fruit until the end of 1870, when the Army of the Loire was formed south of Paris.

In a similar situation, the revolutionaries of 1792 called for a nationwide war of liberation in France. But fear of the threat of the national liberation war escalating into a civil war kept the government from such a step. It came to the conclusion that peace was inevitable on the terms proposed by Prussia, but waited for a favorable moment for this, and in the meantime imitated national defense.

As soon as news of the government's new attempt to enter into peace negotiations became known, an uprising broke out in Paris. On October 31, 1870, National Guard soldiers arrested and held the ministers hostage for several hours until they were rescued by troops loyal to the government.

Now the government was more concerned with how to calm the restless Parisians than with national defense. The uprising of October 31 thwarted the truce plan prepared by Adolphe Thiers. French troops tried unsuccessfully to break the blockade of Paris. By the beginning of 1871, the position of the besieged capital seemed hopeless. The government decided that it was impossible to delay the conclusion of peace any longer.

On January 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles of the French kings, the Prussian King William I was proclaimed German Emperor, and on January 28 an armistice was signed between France and a united Germany. Under its terms, the forts of Paris and army weapons stocks were transferred to the Germans. Peace was finally signed in Frankfurt on May 10, 1873. According to its terms, France ceded Alsace and Lorraine to Germany, and also had to pay 5 billion francs in indemnity.

The Parisians were extremely indignant at the terms of the peace, but despite the seriousness of the disagreements with the government, no one in Paris thought about an uprising, much less prepared it. The uprising was provoked by the actions of the authorities. After the blockade was lifted, payments to National Guard soldiers were stopped. In a city whose economy has not yet recovered from the consequences of the blockade, thousands of residents were left without a livelihood. The pride of the inhabitants of Paris was also hurt by the decision of the National Assembly to choose Versailles as its seat.

Paris Commune

On March 18, 1871, on government orders, troops attempted to capture National Guard artillery. The soldiers were stopped by the residents and retreated without a fight. But the guards captured Generals Leconte and Thomas, who commanded the government troops, and shot them on the same day.

Thiers ordered the evacuation of government offices to Versailles.

On March 26, elections were held for the Paris Commune (as the city government of Paris was traditionally called). Of the 85 members of the Council of the Commune, the majority were workers or their recognized representatives.

The Commune declared its intention to carry out profound reforms in many areas.

First of all, they took a number of measures to alleviate the situation of low-income residents of Paris. But many global plans could not be realized. The main concern of the Commune at that moment was war. At the beginning of April, clashes began between the federates, as the fighters of the armed detachments of the Commune called themselves, and the Versailles troops. The forces were obviously unequal.

The opponents seemed to compete in cruelty and outrages. The streets of Paris were filled with blood. There was unprecedented vandalism shown by the Communards during street battles. In Paris, they deliberately set fire to the city hall, the Palace of Justice, the Tuileries Palace, the Ministry of Finance, and Thiers' house. Countless cultural and artistic treasures were destroyed in the fire. The arsonists also attempted to destroy the treasures of the Louvre.

The “Bloody Week” of May 21-28 ended the short history of the Commune. On May 28, the last barricade on Rampono Street fell. The Paris Commune lasted only 72 days. Very few communards managed to escape the subsequent massacre by leaving France. Among the Communard emigrants was a French worker, poet, and author of the proletarian anthem “The Internationale” - Eugene Potier.

A troubled time began in the history of France, when three dynasties laid claim to the French throne: Bourbons, Orleans, Bonapartes. Although September 4, 1870 of the year As a result of a popular uprising, a republic was proclaimed in France; in the National Assembly, the majority belonged to monarchists, the minority was made up of republicans, among whom there were several movements. There was a “republic without republicans” in the country.

However, the plan to restore the monarchy in France failed. The bulk of the French population was for the establishment of a republic. The question of defining the political system of France was not resolved for a long time. Only in 1875 In 2010, the National Assembly, by a majority of one vote, adopted an amendment to the basic law recognizing France as a republic. But even after this, France was on the verge of a monarchical coup several times more.

May 24, 1873 an ardent monarchist was elected president of the republic McMahon, on whose name three monarchist parties that hated each other agreed when they were looking for a successor to Thieroux. Under the patronage of the president, monarchist intrigues were carried out to restore the monarchy.

In November 1873, McMahon's powers were extended for seven years. IN 1875 MacMahon was a strong opponent of the republican constitution, which, nevertheless, was adopted by the National Assembly.

The Constitution of the Third Republic was a compromise between monarchists and republicans. Forced to recognize the republic, the monarchists tried to give it a conservative, undemocratic character. Legislative power was transferred to parliament, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The Senate was elected for 9 years and renewed after three years by one third. The age limit for senators was 40 years. The Chamber of Deputies was elected for 4 years only by men who had reached the age of 21 and had lived in the community for at least 6 months. Women, military personnel, youth, and seasonal workers did not receive voting rights.

Executive power was vested in the president, elected by the National Assembly for a 7-year term. He was given the right to declare war, make peace, as well as the right of legislative initiative and appointment to senior civil and military positions. Thus, the power of the president was great.

The first parliamentary elections held on the basis of the new constitution brought victory to the Republicans. IN 1879 year McMahon is forced to resign. Moderate Republicans came to power. The new president was elected Jules Grevy, and the chairman of the Chamber of Deputies Leon Gambetta.

Jules Grévy was the first president of France, who was a staunch republican and actively opposed the restoration of the monarchy.

The removal of Marshal MacMahon was greeted in the country with a sense of relief. With the election of Jules Grévy, the conviction took root that the republic had entered a period of smooth, calm and fruitful development. Indeed, the years of Grevy's rule were marked by colossal successes in strengthening the republic. December 28th 1885 he was again elected president Third Republic. The second period of Jules Grevy's presidency turned out to be very short. At the end 1887 he was forced to resign as President of the Republic under the influence of public indignation caused by revelations about the reprehensible actions of Grevy's son-in-law, Deputy Wilson, who was trading in the highest state award - the Legion of Honor. Grevy was not personally compromised.

From 1887 to 1894 was the president of France Sadi Carnot.

The seven years of Carnot's presidency occupied a prominent place in the history of the Third Republic. This was a period of consolidation of the republican system. His ultimate failure Boulanger and Boulangism (1888-89) made the republic even more popular in the eyes of the population. The strength of the republic was not at all shaken even by such unfavorable events as "Panamanian scandals" (1892-93) and sudden manifestations anarchism (1893).

During the presidencies of Grevy and Carnot, the majority in the Chamber of Deputies belonged to moderate Republicans. On their initiative, France actively seized new colonies. IN 1881 a French protectorate was established over Tunisia, V 1885 The right of France to Annam and Tonkin was secured. In 1894, the war for Madagascar began. After two years of bloody war, the island became French colony. At the same time, France was leading the conquest of West and Central Africa. At the end of the 19th century, France's possessions in Africa were 17 times larger than the size of the metropolis itself. France became the second (after England) colonial power in the world.

Colonial wars required large amounts of money, and taxes increased. The authority of moderate Republicans, who expressed the interests only of the big financial and industrial bourgeoisie, was falling.

This led to the strengthening of the radical left wing in the ranks of the Republican Party, led by Georges Clemenceau (1841-1929).

Georges Clemenceau - the son of a doctor, the owner of a small estate, Clemenceau's father and he himself opposed the Second Empire and were persecuted. During the Paris Commune, Georges Clemenceau served as one of the Paris mayors and tried to be a mediator between the Commune and Versailles. Having become the leader of the radicals, Clemenceau sharply criticized the domestic and foreign policies of moderate Republicans and sought their resignation, receiving the nickname “overthrower of ministers.”

In 1881, the radicals broke away from the Republicans and formed an independent party. They demanded the democratization of the government system, the separation of church and state, the introduction of a progressive income tax, and social reforms. In the parliamentary elections of 1881, the radicals already acted independently and won 46 seats. However, the majority in the Chamber of Deputies remained with moderate Republicans.

The political positions of monarchists, clerics, and moderate republicans increasingly converged on a common anti-democratic platform. This was clearly manifested in connection with the so-called Dreyfus affair, around which a sharp political struggle unfolded.

The Dreyfus affair.

In 1884, it was discovered that secret military documents had been sold to the German military attache in Paris. This could only be done by one of the officers of the General Staff. Suspicion fell on the captain Alfred Dreyfus, Jewish by nationality. Despite the fact that no serious evidence of his guilt was established, Dreyfus was arrested and court-martialed. Anti-Semitic sentiments were strong among French officers, mostly from noble families who were educated in Catholic educational institutions. The Dreyfus affair was the impetus for an explosion of anti-Semitism in the country.

The military command did everything possible to support the charge of espionage against Dreyfus, he was found guilty and sentenced to life hard labor.

The movement that unfolded in France to reconsider the Dreyfus case was not limited to the defense of an innocent officer, it turned into a struggle of the forces of democracy against reaction. The Dreyfus affair excited wide circles of the population and attracted the attention of the press. Among the supporters of the review of the verdict were the writers Emile Zola, Anatole France, Octave Mirabeau and others. Zola published an open letter entitled “I Accuse”, addressed to President Faure, an opponent of the review of the Dreyfus affair. The famous writer accused him of trying to save a real criminal by falsifying evidence. Zola was brought to justice for his speech, and only emigration to England saved him from imprisonment.

Zola's letter excited the whole of France; it was read and discussed everywhere. The country split into two camps: Dreyfusards and anti-Dreyfusards.

It was clear to the most far-sighted politicians that it was necessary to end the Dreyfus affair as soon as possible - France was on the brink of civil war. The verdict in the Dreyfus case was revised, he was not acquitted, but then the president pardoned him. The government in this way tried to hide the truth: the innocence of Dreyfus and the name of the real spy - Esterhazy. It was not until 1906 that Dreyfus was pardoned.

At the turn of the century.

The French people could not forget the national humiliation experienced in connection with the defeat of France in the war with Prussia. The country was struggling to heal the wounds caused by the war. The original French lands of Alsace and Lorraine were included in German territory. France was in dire need of an ally for a future war with Germany. Russia could become such an ally, which, in turn, did not want to remain isolated in the face of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria, Italy), which had a clearly anti-Russian orientation. IN 1892 In 1893, a military convention was signed between France and Russia, and a military alliance was concluded in 1893.

From 1895 to 1899 was the President of the Third Republic Felix Faure.

He introduced almost royal court etiquette into the Elysee Palace, unusual until then in France, and demanded its strict observance; he considered himself unworthy to appear at various celebrations next to the prime minister or presidents of the chambers, everywhere trying to emphasize his special importance as head of state.

These features began to appear especially sharply after Emperor Nicholas II and the Empress visited Paris in 1896. This visit was the result of the rapprochement between France and Russia, which the governments before and under Faure had worked on; he himself was an active supporter of rapprochement. In 1897, the Russian imperial couple paid a second visit.

Industrialization proceeded more slowly in France than in Germany, the USA, and England. If France was significantly behind other capitalist countries in terms of concentration of production, then in terms of concentration of banks it was ahead of others and took first place.

Since the beginning of the 20th century, there has been a general shift to the left in the mood of the French. This was clearly evident during the parliamentary elections in 1902, when the left parties - socialists and radicals - received the majority of votes. After the elections, the radicals became the masters of the country. The radical government of Combe (1902-1905) launched an attack on the Catholic Church. The government ordered the closure of schools run by priests. The clergy resisted fiercely. Several thousand schools of religious orders turned into fortresses. The unrest was especially strong in Brittany. But “Papa Comba,” as the new prime minister was called, stubbornly pursued his line. Things came to a break in diplomatic relations with the Vatican. Friction increased with senior army leadership, dissatisfied with the government's attempts to carry out army reform. At the end of 1904, information leaked to the press that the government was maintaining a secret file on senior army ranks. A loud scandal broke out, as a result of which the Combes government was forced to resign.

In 1904, France entered into an agreement with England. Creation of the Anglo-French Alliance - Entente– was an event of international significance.

In December 1905, the cabinet of the right-wing radical Rouvier, which replaced Combe's cabinet, passed a law on the separation of church and state. At the same time, the property of the church was not confiscated, and the clergy received the right to state pensions.

By the middle of the first decade of the 20th century, France ranked first in Europe in terms of the number of strikers. The miners' strike in the spring of 1906 caused great resonance. It was caused by one of the largest mining disasters in French history, which killed 1,200 miners. There is a threat of traditional labor conflicts escalating into street clashes.

This was taken advantage of by the radical party, which sought to present itself as the wisest political force, capable of simultaneously carrying out the necessary reforms and ready to show cruelty in order to preserve civil peace.

At the parliamentary elections in 1906, the radical party became even stronger. Georges Clemenceau (1906-1909) became the head of the Council of Ministers. A bright, extraordinary figure, he initially sought to emphasize that it was his government that would begin to truly carry out the work of reforming society. It turned out to be much easier to declare this idea than to implement it. True, one of the first steps of the new government was the re-establishment of the Ministry of Labor, the leadership of which was entrusted to the “independent socialist” Viviani. This, however, did not solve the problem of stabilizing labor relations. Acute labor conflicts periodically flared up throughout the country, more than once escalating into open clashes with the forces of law and order. Unable to cope with the task of normalizing the social situation, Clemenceau resigned in 1909.

The new government was headed by the “independent socialist A. Briand.” He passed a law on workers' and peasants' pensions from the age of 65, but this did not strengthen the position of his government.

There was a certain instability in the political life of France: none of the parties represented in parliament could carry out their political line alone. Hence the constant search for allies, the formation of various party combinations, which disintegrated at the first test of strength. This situation continued until 1913, when he won the presidential election Raymond Poincaré, who went to success under the slogan of creating a “great and strong France.” He quite obviously sought to shift the center of political struggle from social problems towards foreign policy ones and thus consolidate society.

World War I.

IN 191 In 3 years he was elected President of France Raymond Poincaré. Preparing for war became the main task of the new president. France wanted in this war to return Alsace and Lorraine, taken from it by Germany in 1871, and to seize the Saar basin. The last months before the outbreak of the First World War were filled with acute internal political struggle, and only France’s entry into the war removed the question of what course it should take from the agenda.

The First World War began on July 28, 1914. France entered the war on August 3. The German command planned to defeat France as soon as possible, and only then concentrate on the fight against Russia. German troops launched massive offensives in the West. In the so-called “border battle,” they broke through the front and began an offensive deep into France. In September 1914, a grandiose Battle of the Marne, on the outcome of which the fate of the entire campaign on the Western Front depended. In fierce battles, the Germans were stopped and then driven back from Paris. The plan for the lightning defeat of the French army failed. The war on the Western Front became protracted.

In February 1916 The German command launched the largest-scale offensive operation, trying to capture the strategically important French Verdun fortress. However, despite colossal efforts and huge losses, German troops were never able to take Verdun. The Anglo-French command tried to take advantage of the current situation and launched a major offensive in the summer of 1916. operation in the Somme River area, where they first tried to seize the initiative from the Germans.

However, in April 1917, when the United States entered the war on the side of the Entente, the situation became more favorable for Germany’s opponents. The inclusion of the United States in the military efforts of the Entente guaranteed its troops a reliable advantage in terms of logistics. Realizing that time was working against them, the Germans made several desperate attempts in March-July 1918 to achieve a turning point in military operations on the Western Front. At the cost of huge losses, which completely depleted the German army, it managed to approach Paris to a distance of about 70 km.

On July 18, 1918, the Allies launched a powerful counteroffensive. November 11, 1918 Germany capitulated. The peace treaty was signed at the Palace of Versailles June 28, 1919. Under the terms of the treaty, France received Alsace, Lorraine, Saar coalfield.

Interwar period.

France was at the height of its power. She completely defeated her mortal enemy, she had no serious opponents on the continent, and in those days hardly anyone could have imagined that a little more than two decades later the Third Republic would collapse like a house of cards. What happened, why did France not only fail to consolidate its very real success, but ultimately suffered the largest national catastrophe in the history of France?

Yes, France achieved victory in the war, but this success cost the French people dearly. Every fifth resident of the country (8.5 million people) was mobilized into the army, 1 million 300 thousand French died, 2.8 million people were injured, of which 600 thousand remained disabled.

A third of France, where the fighting took place, was seriously destroyed, and it was there that the main industrial potential of the country was concentrated. The franc depreciated 5 times, and France itself owed the United States a huge amount - more than 4 billion dollars.

There were fierce debates in society between a wide range of leftist forces and the nationalists in power, led by Prime Minister Clemenceau, about how and at what cost to solve numerous internal problems. Socialists believed that it was necessary to move towards building a more just society, only in this case all the sacrifices that were made on the altar of victory would be justified. To do this, it is necessary to more evenly distribute the hardships of the recovery period, alleviate the situation of the poor, and take key sectors of the economy under state control so that they work for the whole society, and not for the enrichment of a narrow clan of the financial oligarchy.

Nationalists of all different colors were united by a common idea - Germany must pay for everything! The implementation of this goal does not require reforms, which will inevitably split society, but its consolidation around the idea of ​​a strong France.

In January 1922, the government was headed by Raymond Poincaré, who had already established himself as a fierce opponent of Germany before the war. Poincaré said that the main task of the current moment is to collect reparations from Germany in full. However, it was impossible to implement this slogan in practice. Poincaré himself became convinced of this a few months later. Then, after some hesitation, he decided to occupy the Ruhr region, which was done in January 1923.

However, the consequences of this step turned out to be completely different than Pkankare expected. There was no money coming from Germany - they had already gotten used to it, but now coal had stopped coming in, which hit French industry hard. Inflation has increased. Under pressure from the USA and England, France was forced to withdraw its troops from Germany. The failure of this adventure caused a regrouping of political forces in France.

The parliamentary elections in May 1924 brought success to the Left Bloc. The leader of the radicals became the head of government E. Herriot. First of all, he dramatically changed the country's foreign policy. France established diplomatic relations with the USSR and began to establish contacts with the country in a variety of areas. But the implementation of the internal political program of the Left Bloc caused active resistance from conservative forces. An attempt to introduce a progressive income tax failed, which jeopardized the government's entire financial policy. France's largest banks also entered into confrontation with the prime minister. In the most radical party he had many opponents. As a result, on April 10, 1925, the Senate condemned the government's financial policies. Herriot resigned.

This was followed by a period of government leapfrog - five governments changed in a year. In such conditions, carrying out the Left Bloc program turned out to be impossible. In the summer of 1926, the Left Bloc collapsed.

The new “government of national unity,” which included both representatives of right-wing parties and radicals, was headed by Raymond Poincaré.

Poincare proclaimed the fight against inflation as his main task.

Government spending was noticeably reduced by reducing the bureaucracy, new taxes were introduced and at the same time large benefits were provided to entrepreneurs. From 1926 to 1929 France had a deficit-free budget. Poincaré's government managed to bring down inflation, stabilize the franc, and stop the rise in the cost of living. The social activities of the state intensified, benefits were introduced for the unemployed (1926), old-age pensions, as well as benefits for illness, disability, and pregnancy (1928). It is not surprising that the prestige of Poincaré and the parties supporting him grew.

In such a situation, the next parliamentary elections took place in 1928. As one would expect, right-wing parties won the majority of seats in the new parliament. The successes of the right were largely based on Poincaré's personal prestige, but in the summer of 1929 he became seriously ill and was forced to leave his post and politics altogether.

The Third Republic was again in serious trouble: from 1929 to 1932. 8 governments have changed. All were dominated by right-wing parties, which had new leaders - A. Tardieu and P. Laval. However, none of these governments could stop the French economy from sliding downhill.

In this situation, France approached the next parliamentary elections in May 1932, which were won by the newly reconstituted Left Bloc. The government was headed by E. Herriot. He immediately faced a set of problems generated by the global economic crisis. The budget deficit increased every day, and the government faced an increasingly pressing question: where to get the money? Herriot was against the plans advocated by the communists and socialists to nationalize a number of industries and introduce additional taxes on large capital. In December 1932, the Chamber of Deputies withdrew his proposal to continue paying off war debts. The Herriot government fell, and ministerial leapfrog began again, from which France was not only seriously tired, but also seriously suffering.

The position of those political forces in the country that believed that democratic institutions had exhausted their capabilities and should be discarded began to strengthen. In France, these thoughts were propagated by a number of pro-fascist organizations, the largest of which were the Action Française and the Combat Crosses. The influence of these organizations among the masses grew rapidly; they had many adherents in the ruling elite, in the army, and the police. As the crisis worsened, they louder and more decisively declared the incapacity of the Third Republic and their readiness to take power.

By the end of January 1932, fascist organizations achieved the resignation of the government of K. Shotan. However, the government was headed by the radical socialist E. Daladier, hated by the right. One of his first steps was the removal from his post of police prefect Chiappa, known for his sympathies towards the fascists.

The latter's patience has come to an end. On February 6, 1934, more than 40 thousand fascist activists stormed the Bourbon Palace, where parliament was sitting, intending to disperse it. Clashes with the police began, during which 17 people were killed and more than 2 thousand were injured. They were unable to capture the palace, but the government they disliked fell. Daladier was replaced by the right-wing radical G. Doumergue. There was a serious shift in forces in favor of the right. The threat of the establishment of a fascist regime really loomed over the country.

All this forced the anti-fascist forces, forgetting about their differences, to fight against the fascisation of the country. In July 1935 arose Popular Front, which included communists, socialists, radicals, trade unions and a number of anti-fascist organizations of the French intelligentsia. The effectiveness of the new association was tested by the parliamentary elections held in the spring of 1936 - Popular Front candidates received 57% of all votes. The formation of the government was entrusted to the leader of the parliamentary faction of socialists L. Blum. Under his chairmanship, negotiations began between representatives of trade unions and the General Confederation of Employers. Under the terms of the agreements reached, wages increased by an average of 7-15%, collective agreements became mandatory for all enterprises where trade unions demanded it, and, finally, the government undertook to introduce a number of laws on social protection of workers to parliament.

In the summer of 1936, parliament with unprecedented speed adopted 133 laws that implemented the main provisions of the Popular Front. Among the most important are the law banning the activities of fascist leagues, as well as a series of socio-economic legislation: on a 40-hour work week, on paid holidays, on raising the minimum wages, on the organization of public works, on the deferment of payments on debt obligations for small entrepreneurs and on their preferential lending, on the creation of the National Grain Bureau for the purchase of grain from peasants at fixed prices.

In 1937, tax reform was carried out and additional loans were allocated for the development of science, education, and culture. The French Bank was placed under state control and the National Society was created railways with mixed capital, in which 51% of the shares belonged to the state, and, finally, a number of military factories were nationalized.

These measures significantly increased the state budget deficit. Large entrepreneurs sabotaged the payment of taxes and transferred capital abroad. The total amount of capital withdrawn from the French economy was, according to some estimates, 60 billion francs.

The law prohibited only paramilitary, but not political organizations of a fascist persuasion. Supporters of the fascist idea immediately took advantage of this. “Combat Crosses” was renamed the French Social Party, “Patriotic Youth” became known as the Republican National and Social Party, etc.

Taking advantage of democratic freedoms, the pro-fascist press launched a campaign of persecution against the Socialist Interior Minister Salangro, who was driven to suicide.

In the summer of 1937, Blum presented to parliament a “financial recovery plan” that included increasing indirect taxes, taxes on corporate income and introducing government controls over foreign exchange transactions abroad.

After the Senate rejected this plan, Blum decided to resign.

The right managed to establish in the public consciousness the idea that the deterioration of the situation in the country is directly related to the “irresponsible social experiments” of the Popular Front. The right claimed that the Popular Front was preparing for the "Bolshevisation" of France. Only a sharp turn to the right, a reorientation toward Germany, could save the country from this, the right argued. Right-wing leader P. Laval said: “Better Hitler than the Popular Front.” This slogan was adopted in 1938 by most of the political establishment of the Third Republic. In the end, this was her undoing.

In the fall of 1938, the Daladier government, together with England, sanctioned the Munich Agreement, which handed Czechoslovakia over to Nazi Germany. Anti-communist sentiments outweighed even the traditional fear of Germany in the eyes of a significant part of French society. In essence, the Munich Agreement opened the way to the outbreak of a new world war.

One of the first victims of this war was the Third Republic itself. June 14, 1940 German troops entered Paris. Today we can safely say: the path of the German army to Paris began in Munich. The Third Republic paid a terrible price for the short-sighted policies of its leaders.

The epiphany came too late. Hitler had already completed preparations for delivering a decisive blow on the Western Front. On May 10, 1940, the Germans, bypassing the defensive Maginot Line built along the Franco-German border, invaded Belgium and Holland, and from there into Northern France. On the very first day of the offensive, German aviation bombed the most important airfields on the territory of these countries. The main forces of French aviation were destroyed. In the Dunkirk area, a 400,000-strong Anglo-French group was surrounded. Only with great difficulty and huge losses was it possible to evacuate its remnants to England. The Germans, meanwhile, were rapidly advancing towards Paris. On June 10, the government fled from Paris to Bordeaux. Paris, declared an “open city,” was occupied by the Germans on June 14 without a fight. A few days later the government was headed Marshal Pétain, who immediately turned to Germany asking for peace.

Only individual representatives of the bourgeoisie and senior officers opposed the capitulatory policy of the government. Among them was General Charles de Gaulle, who at that time was conducting negotiations in London on military cooperation with England. In response to his radio address to French soldiers stationed outside the metropolis, many patriots united in the Free France movement to fight for the national revival of their homeland.

June 22, 1940 in the Compiègne forest The act of surrender of France was signed. In order to humiliate France, the Nazis forced its representatives to sign this act in the same carriage in which Marshal Foch dictated the terms of the truce to the German delegation in November 1918. The Third Republic fell.

According to the terms of the armistice, Germany occupied 2/3 of France, including Paris. The southern part of France formally remained independent. The small town of Vichy was chosen as the seat of government for Pétain, who began to cooperate closely with Germany.

The question arises: why did Hitler decide to at least formally retain part of France’s sovereignty? Behind this lay a completely pragmatic calculation.

Firstly, in this way he avoided raising the question of the fate of the French colonial empire and the French navy. In the event of the complete liquidation of French independence, the Germans would hardly have been able to prevent the sailors from leaving for England and would certainly not have been able to prevent the transition of the huge French colonial empire and the troops stationed there to British control.

And so the French Marshal Pétain categorically forbade the fleet and colonial troops to leave their bases.

In addition, the presence of a formally independent France hampered the development Resistance movements, which in the conditions of Hitler’s preparations for jumping across the English Channel was very relevant for him.

Petain was proclaimed the sole head of the French state. The French authorities pledged to supply Germany with raw materials, food and labor. The economy of the entire country was brought under German control. The French armed forces were subject to disarmament and demobilization. The Nazis got a huge amount of weapons and military materials.

Hitler later ordered the occupation of southern France after the French colonial army at its core defected to the Allied side, against Pétain's orders.

The Resistance movement developed in France. On August 19, 1944, French patriots rebelled in Paris. When Allied troops approached Paris on August 25, most of the city had already been liberated.

Four years of occupation, aerial bombing and military action caused great damage to France. The economic situation of the country was extremely difficult. The government was headed by General Charles de Gaulle, whom most French people considered a national hero. One of the most important demands of the majority of the French was to punish the traitorous collaborators. Laval was shot, but Petain's death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment, and many lower-ranking traitors escaped retribution.

In October 1945, elections were held to the Constituent Assembly, which was to develop a new constitution. They brought victory to the left forces: the PCF (French Communist Party) received the largest number of votes, and the SFIO (French Socialist Party) was slightly behind it.

The government was headed again de Gaulle, his deputy became Maurice Thorez. The communists also received the portfolios of ministers of economy, industrial production, armaments and labor. On the initiative of communist ministers in 1944-1945. Power plants, gas plants, coal mines, aviation and insurance companies, the largest banks, and Renault automobile plants were nationalized. The owners of these factories received large financial rewards, with the exception of Louis Renault, who collaborated with the Nazis, who committed suicide. But while Paris was starving, three-quarters of the population was malnourished.

A sharp struggle unfolded in the Constituent Assembly over the nature of the future political system. De Gaulle insisted on concentrating power in the hands of the president of the republic and reducing the prerogatives of parliament; bourgeois parties advocated a simple restoration of the 1875 constitution; The communists believed that the new republic should be truly democratic, with a full-power parliament expressing the will of the people.

Convinced that with the existing composition of the Constituent Assembly the adoption of its constitutional draft was impossible, de Gaulle resigned in January 1946. A new three-party government was formed.

After a tense struggle (the first draft of the constitution was rejected in a referendum), the Constituent Assembly developed a second draft, which was approved by popular vote, and the constitution came into force at the end of 1946. France was declared a “single and indivisible secular democratic and social republic” in which sovereignty belonged to the people.

The preamble contained a number of progressive provisions on the equality of women, on the right of persons persecuted in their homeland for activities in defense of freedom to political asylum in France, on the right of all citizens to obtain work and material security in old age. The Constitution proclaimed the obligation not to wage wars of conquest and not to use force against the freedom of any people, declared the need for nationalization of key industries, economic planning, and participation of workers in the management of enterprises.

Legislative power belonged to parliament, consisting of two chambers - the National Assembly and the Council of the Republic. The right to approve the budget, declare war, make peace, express confidence or distrust in the government was granted to the National Assembly, and the Council of the Republic could only delay the entry into force of the law.

The President of the Republic was elected for 7 years by both chambers. The president appoints one of the leaders of the party with the largest number of seats in parliament as head of government. The composition and program of the government are approved by the National Assembly.

The Constitution declared the transformation of the French colonial empire into the French Union and proclaimed the equality of all its constituent territories.

The Constitution of the Fourth Republic was progressive; its adoption meant the victory of democratic forces. However, later many of the freedoms and obligations proclaimed in it turned out to be unfulfilled or were violated.

IN 1946 year began war in indochina, which lasted almost eight years. The French rightly called the Vietnam War a “dirty war.” A peace movement developed, which took on a particularly wide scale in France. Workers refused to load weapons to be sent to Vietnam; 14 million French people signed the Stockholm Appeal demanding a ban on atomic weapons.

IN 1949 France entered NATO.

In May 1954 France suffered a crushing defeat in Vietnam: The French garrison, surrounded in the Dien Bien Phu area, capitulated. 6 thousand soldiers and officers surrendered. On July 20, 1954, agreements were signed to restore peace in Indochina. The “Dirty War,” on which France spent an astronomical amount of 3,000 billion francs, losing several tens of thousands of lives, has ended. France also pledged to withdraw troops from Laos and Cambodia.

On November 1, 1954, France began a new colonial war - this time against Algeria. The Algerians repeatedly appealed to the French government with a request to grant Algeria at least autonomy, but were invariably refused under the pretext that Algeria was allegedly not a colony, but an organic part of France, its “overseas departments,” and therefore could not lay claim to autonomy. Since peaceful methods did not yield results, the Algerians took up arms.

The uprising grew and soon spread throughout the country; the French government was unable to suppress it. The violent rallies and demonstrations that unfolded in Algeria spread to Corsica, and the metropolis was under the threat of civil war or a military coup. June 1, 1958 the National Assembly elected Charles de Gaulle head of government and granted him emergency powers.

De Gaulle began with what he failed to achieve in 1946 - the proclamation of a constitution that corresponded to his political views. The President of the Republic gained enormous power by reducing the prerogatives of Parliament. Thus, the president determines the main directions of the country’s domestic and foreign policy, is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, appoints all senior positions, starting with the prime minister, can dissolve the National Assembly early and delay the entry into force of laws adopted by parliament. In emergency circumstances, the president has the right to take full power into his hands.

Parliament still consists of two chambers - the National Assembly, elected by universal suffrage, and the Senate, which replaced the Council of the Republic. The role of the National Assembly has decreased significantly: the agenda of its sessions is set by the government, their duration has been reduced, and when discussing the budget, deputies cannot make proposals that would reduce revenues or increase state expenditures.

Expressing no confidence in the government by the National Assembly is complicated by a number of restrictions. The deputy mandate is incompatible with responsible positions in the government, state apparatus, trade unions and other national organizations.

In a referendum held on September 28, 1958, this constitution was adopted. The Fourth Republic was replaced by the Fifth. The majority of referendum participants voted not for the constitution, which many did not even read, but for de Gaulle, hoping that he would be able to restore the greatness of France, end the war in Algeria, government leapfrog, financial crisis, dependence on the United States and parliamentary intrigues.

After members of Parliament and a special electoral college elected President in December 1958 Fifth Republic General de Gaulle, the process of constituting the Fifth Republic was completed.

Pro-fascist elements hoped that de Gaulle would ban the Communist Party, establish a totalitarian regime and, by unleashing the military power of France on the Algerian rebels, achieve their pacification based on the slogan: “Algeria was and will always be French!”

However, possessing the qualities of a large-scale political figure and taking into account the current balance of power, the president chose a different political course and, in particular, did not ban the Communist Party. De Gaulle hoped that he would be able to win over all the French to his side.

The Algerian policy of the Fifth Republic went through several stages. At first, the new government tried to achieve a solution to the Algerian problem from a position of strength, but soon became convinced that these attempts were leading nowhere. The Algerian resistance is only intensifying, French troops are suffering defeat after defeat, the campaign for Algerian independence is expanding in the metropolis, and in the international arena, a broad movement of solidarity with the struggle of the Algerian people entails the isolation of France. Since the continuation of the war could only lead to the complete loss of Algeria, and with it the oil, the French monopolies began to advocate the search for an acceptable compromise. A reflection of this turn was de Gaulle’s recognition of Algeria’s right to self-determination, which gave rise to a number of speeches and terrorist acts by ultra-colonialists.

And yet, on March 18, 1962, an agreement was signed in the city of Evian to grant independence to Algeria. In order to avoid new wars, the French government had to grant independence to a number of states in Equatorial and West Africa.

In the fall of 1962, de Gaulle submitted to a referendum a proposal to change the procedure for electing the president of the republic. According to this bill, the president would henceforth be elected not by the electoral college, but by popular vote. The reform was aimed at further understanding the authority of the President of the Republic and eliminating the last remnants of his dependence on parliament, whose deputies had until then participated in his election.

Many parties that previously supported him spoke out against de Gaulle's proposal. The National Assembly expressed no confidence in the government, which was headed by one of the president's closest associates, Georges Pompidou. In response, de Gaulle dissolved the meeting and called new elections, threatening to resign if his project was rejected.

The referendum supported the president's proposal. After the elections, supporters of General de Gaulle retained the majority in the National Assembly. The government was again headed by Georges Pompidou.

In December 1965, elections were held for the President of the Republic, who was elected by universal suffrage for the first time. The left forces managed to agree on the nomination of a common candidate. He became the leader of a small left-bourgeois party, Francois Mitterrand, a participant in the Resistance movement, one of the few non-communists who opposed the regime of personal power. In the second round of voting, 75-year-old General de Gaulle was re-elected president of the republic for the next seven years with a majority of 55% of the votes; 45% of voters voted for Mitterrand.

In the field of foreign policy, General de Gaulle sought to ensure the increasing role of France in the modern world, its transformation into an independent great power capable of withstanding the competition of other powers in world markets. To do this, de Gaulle considered it necessary, first of all, to free himself from American tutelage and unite continental Western Europe under French hegemony, opposing it to the United States.

At first, he relied on cooperation between France and Germany within the European Economic Community (EEC, “Common Market”), hoping that in exchange for political support from France, West Germany would agree to give her a leading role in this organization. This perspective was the basis for the rapprochement between France and Germany, which began in 1958 and became known as the Bonn-Paris “axis.”

Soon, however, it became obvious that Germany was not going to cede first place to France in the EEC and preferred not to spoil relations with the United States, considering their support more significant than that of France. The contradictions between the countries intensified. Thus, Germany advocated the admission of England to the EEC, and de Gaulle vetoed this decision, calling England “the Trojan horse of the United States” (January 1963). There were other contradictions that led to the gradual weakening of the Bonn-Paris axis. The Franco-German “friendship,” as de Gaulle put it, “withered like a rose,” and he began to look for other ways to strengthen France’s foreign policy positions. These new paths were expressed in rapprochement with the countries of Eastern Europe, primarily with the Soviet Union, and in support of the course towards détente, which de Gaulle had previously disapproved of.

In February 1966, de Gaulle decided to withdraw France from the military organization of the North Atlantic bloc. This meant the withdrawal of French troops from NATO command, the evacuation from French territory of all foreign troops, NATO headquarters, warehouses, air bases, etc., and the refusal to finance NATO military activities. By April 1, 1967, all these measures had been implemented, despite protests and pressure from the United States, France remained only a member of the political union.

Controversies had been brewing in the internal life of the country for many years, which resulted in May-June 1968 in one of the most massive popular movements in the entire history of the country.

The first to speak were students who demanded a radical restructuring of the higher education system. The fact is that during the 50-60s there was a rapid growth in the number of students, but higher education was unprepared for such growth. There were not enough teachers, classrooms, dormitories, libraries, allocations for higher education were meager, only a fifth of students received scholarships, so about half of university students were forced to work.

The teaching system has hardly changed since the 19th century - often professors read not what life and the level of science required, but what they knew.

On May 3, 1968, the police, called by the rector of the Sorbonne, dispersed the student meeting and arrested a large group of its participants. In response, the students went on strike. On May 7, a mass demonstration demanding the immediate release of those arrested, the removal of police from the university and the resumption of classes was attacked by large police forces - on that day, more than 800 people were injured and about 500 were arrested. The Sorbonne was closed, and in protest, students began to build barricades in the Latin Quarter. On May 11, there was a new clash with the police. Students barricaded themselves in the university building.

The massacre of students caused outrage throughout the country. On May 13, a general strike began in solidarity with the student movement. From that day on, although student unrest continued for a long time, the initiative of the movement passed into the hands of the workers. The one-day strike grew into a long strike that lasted almost four weeks and spread throughout the country. Solidarity with the students was only a pretext for action by workers who had long-standing and much more serious claims against the regime. Engineers, technicians, and office workers joined the strike movement; Radio and television workers, employees of some ministries, department store clerks, communications workers, and bank officials went on strike. The total number of strikers reached 10 million.

As a result, by mid-June, the strikers achieved satisfaction of almost all of their demands: the minimum wage was doubled, the working week was shortened, benefits and pensions were increased, collective agreements with entrepreneurs were revised in the interests of workers, the rights of trade unions in enterprises were recognized, student self-government was introduced in higher educational institutions, etc.

Contrary to the hopes of the government and businessmen, the concessions of 1968 did not lead to the fading of the class struggle. From May 1968 to March 1969, the cost of living increased by 6%, which significantly devalued the gains of working people. In this regard, workers continued to fight for lower taxes, higher wages, and the introduction of a sliding wage scale, providing for its automatic increase as prices rise. On March 11, 1969, a massive general strike took place, and anti-government demonstrations took place in Paris and other cities.

In this situation, Chal de Gaulle scheduled a referendum on April 27 on two bills - on the reform of the administrative structure of France and the reorganization of the Senate. The government had the opportunity to put them into effect without a referendum, through a parliamentary majority obedient to its will, but de Gaulle decided to test the strength of his power, threatening that in the event of a negative outcome of the referendum he would resign.

As a result, 52.4% of referendum participants spoke out against the bills. On the same day, General Charles de Gaulle resigned, no longer took any part in political life, and died on November 9, 1970 at the age of 80.

General de Gaulle was undoubtedly an outstanding political figure and had many services to France. He played a major role in the fight against fascism during the Second World War, contributed to the revival of France in the early post-war years, and after his second rise to power in 1958, he achieved strengthening of the country's independence and increasing its international prestige.

But over the years, the number of French people supporting him steadily fell, and de Gaulle could not come to terms with this. He understood that the results of the April 1969 referendum were a direct consequence of the May-June events of 1968, and he had the courage to resign from the post of President of the French Republic, which he had the right to remain until December 1972.

Elections for a new president were scheduled for July 1. During the second round he won Georges Pompidou, candidate from the government coalition parties.

The new president of the republic basically maintained de Gaulle's course. Foreign policy has hardly changed. Pompidou rejected US attempts to return France to NATO and actively opposed many aspects of American policy. However, Pompidou withdrew his objections to England's admission to the Common Market.

In April 1974, the President of the Republic, Georges Pompidou, suddenly died, and early presidential elections were held in May. The leader of the government party Federation of Independent Republicans won the second round. Valéry Giscard d'Estaing. This was the first president of the Fifth Republic who was not a Gaullist, but since the majority in the National Assembly belonged to the Gaullists, he had to appoint a representative of this party as Prime Minister Jacques Chirac.

Among the reforms of Valéry Giscard d'Estaing are: lowering the voting age to 18 years, decentralizing the management of radio and television, increasing pensions for the elderly, and facilitating divorce procedures.

In relation to the United States, the president persistently emphasized that France is a reliable ally of the United States. France stopped opposing the prospect of political unification of Western Europe and agreed to participate in the 1978 European Parliament elections, giving it supranational prerogatives. For the sake of rapprochement with Germany, it was decided to abandon the celebration of Victory Day over Nazi Germany, which caused violent public protests. However, this decision did not ease the Franco-German contradictions.

The weather in France is determined by several climate zones. In the west of the country, due to the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, summers are rainy and cool, and winters are mild and wet.

In the central part of the country, summers are hotter, winters are colder, in Lorraine and Alsace the temperature often drops below zero, and in Strasbourg and Nancy there are severe frosts.

The Mediterranean climate of the south provides warm winters with above-zero temperatures and sultry summers, when the air warms up to +30 degrees and above. The velvet season on the Cote d'Azur is August and September, the sweltering heat of July has already receded, and the water in the sea is the warmest. Excursions will be more comfortable in April and May, or September-October.

The country's topography is predominantly flat; the Pyrenees mountains in the south of the country and the Alps in the southeast serve as the natural borders of France. Large navigable rivers flow through the country: Garonne, Loire, Seine. About a third of the country's territory is occupied by forests; oak, hazel, cork, and spruce grow in the north.

In the south, a Russian tourist will be pleased to see palm trees and tangerine plantations.

In the sea waters near the borders of France there are cod, herring, tuna, flounder, and mackerel.

The country's fauna is represented by wolves, bears, foxes, badgers, deer, hares, squirrels; snakes and mountain goats are found in the mountains. Birds - the familiar pigeon, pheasant, hawk, thrush, magpie, snipe.

Shopping

No one manages to return from France without shopping. Shopping in a country recognized as the birthplace of chic and elegance is a special pleasure. France is the center of fashion, winemaking, perfumery, cooking and cosmetics; here you want to buy everything at once.

But you should not make purchases in tourist centers. It makes more sense to visit large shopping malls or department stores.

Clothing stores with affordable prices - Naf Naf, Kookai, Cote a Cote, C&A, Morgan, shoes - Andre.

Excellent edible French gifts for loved ones and friends would be wine, cognac, gift sets of cheeses, and macaroons. Traditional souvenirs and purchases - images of the Eiffel Tower on magnets, key rings, decorative panels; berets and silk scarves; crystal products from Baccarat or glass from Brea.

Connoisseurs of fine aromas go to the town of Grasse, not far from Cannes, where the world-famous Fragonard perfume factory with a 400-year history is located, producing fragrant oils for perfumes. The factory hosts excursions during which those interested can purchase fine perfumes, fragrant soaps and other aromatic products.

Limoges, the capital of the Limousin province, is famous for its carpets and high-quality porcelain.

Sales held in France are popular when the original cost of goods is significantly reduced. Twice a year, usually on the second Wednesday of January and the last Wednesday of June, prices plummet by 40-70%. This feast for shopaholics lasts about 5 weeks. During the rest of the year, large sales are not allowed in France.

France allows non-residents to return up to 20.6% VAT (33% on luxury goods). Refund conditions: purchase of goods in the same store in the amount of 185 € to 300 €, depending on the store; registration when purchasing a border (inventory for export); leaving the EU within three months after purchase. On the day of departure from France, you must present the purchased goods and border at the customs point. You will receive the money when you return home via credit card transfer or check in the mail. This can also be done at the airport at an authorized bank or Tax Free for tourists kiosk.

In large cities, stores are open from 10.00 to 19.00. except Sunday. Provincial stores are usually closed on Monday. There is a lunch break here - from 12.00 to 14.00, or from 13.00 to 15.00.

Grocery stores and bakeries are open in the mornings on weekends and holidays.

Kitchen and food

The French are unsurpassed gourmets, their cuisine is one of the most refined and beloved in the whole world. A French chef is a priori considered a virtuoso of the culinary arts; he will always add something of his own to a standard recipe, playing with it in such a way that you will forever remember the taste and aroma of the dish.

Each region of France is famous for its distinctive dishes. Normandy cheese and Calvados brought this region worldwide fame. Brittany will offer the traveler pancakes made from buckwheat flour stuffed with cheese, meat or eggs; in Toulouse you will try beans baked in a pot; in the southwest of the country you will enjoy goose liver pate - foie gras. You will appreciate one of the traditional French dishes - fish and seaweed soup bouibesse - in Marseille. In Rouen, you will delight in Andouille sausages and roast duck. In Le Havre you can pay tribute to excellent biscuits, and in Honfleur - omelettes and snails in wine sauce. Despite regional differences, all second courses are always accompanied by a side dish of vegetables and root vegetables - artichokes, asparagus, lettuce, beans, eggplant, peppers, spinach. And, of course, every meal is accompanied by the famous delicious French sauces, of which there are up to 3,000 recipes.

An integral part of the local cuisine is various seafood - oysters, lobsters, lobsters. At oyster farms in the south of France, at a price of 8 € per dozen, you will be offered the most delicious, juicy and fresh shellfish, and so that you can appreciate their specific taste, they will be served with bread and butter, lemon and a certain type of white wine.

The calling card of France is cheese; there are more than 1,500 varieties of it. Hard and soft, cow, sheep, goat, aged and moldy - French cheese is always of the highest quality and with a delicious taste.

Popular are omelettes and cheese soufflés, which are prepared with various fillings and seasonings: herbs, ham, mushrooms.

An iconic dish of French cuisine is onion soup. It has nothing in common with boiled onions, as many imagine who have not tried this wonderful dish. This is a thick, aromatic soup in meat broth with croutons baked in cheese and aromatic seasonings.

The first course in France is traditionally a puree soup made from all kinds of vegetables.

For dessert, you will be offered open-faced fruit or berry cakes, the famous creme brulee - cream baked with a caramel crust, soufflé and, of course, the famous croissants.

In the southern regions, each meal is accompanied by a glass of table wine. In the north and in big cities, many people prefer beer. Popular strong drinks are Calvados, cognac, absinthe.

In many establishments, eating and drinking at the counter (au comptoir) is cheaper than at a table (a salle), you will understand this from the prices on the menu. Meals at outdoor tables are 20% more expensive than indoors.

Lunch in cafes and restaurants lasts from 12.00 to 15.00, dinner from 19.00 to 23.00. A set meal (menu of the day) in Chinese establishments costs 10€, in cafes from 19€, in restaurants 30€.

The food bill often states service compris, which means that the cost of service is already included. If there is no such inscription, then the waiter needs to be thanked with an amount of 5-10% of the bill.

Unfortunately, tourists are often shortchanged, so check your bill before paying.

Helpful information

To visit France, Russian citizens will need a Schengen visa.

The official currency of the country is the euro.

Capital banks are closed on weekends and holidays, and on weekdays they are open from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. Banks in the province are open from Tuesday to Saturday. Exchange offices will serve you on any day except Sunday.

The amount of imported and exported currency is not limited, but amounts over €7,500 (or other monetary equivalent) must be declared. The most favorable exchange rate is at Bank de Franct and at points with a No commission sign.

If you have converted any currency into euros, then a reverse exchange is possible only for an amount of 800 €. For exchanging dollars into euros, a large commission is charged - from 8 to 15%.

It is allowed to import into the country 1 liter of strong alcohol, 2 liters of wine, no more than 200 cigarettes, 500 grams of coffee, 50 ml of perfume or 250 ml of eau de toilette, 2 kg of fish and 1 kg of meat. All food products must have an expiration date on them. If you are bringing medications with you, it is advisable to have a prescription. Personal jewelry weighing up to 500 grams is not indicated in the declaration, but if the weight of jewelry exceeds this norm, all jewelry must be declared.

It is prohibited to export items of cultural and historical value without special permission, pornographic publications, weapons, ammunition, and drugs. You cannot export endangered species of animals and plants.

Electricity in France is standard - 220 volts, European-style sockets.

Museums in France are closed on Mondays. The National Museums are closed on Tuesdays.

Time in France is 2 hours behind Moscow.

Accommodation

Like all Western European countries, France has adopted a five-star service rating system. In any, even the most modest hotel, you will be provided with a standard set of services and decent service. An average “three” will cost from 40 to 100 € per night, depending on the region and proximity to attractions.

Guesthouses are popular in the country, often found in rural areas or small towns. This is an ideal and inexpensive place for a family holiday.

Lovers of antiquity and exoticism can choose grand hotels located in former palaces and ancient castles. Exquisite interiors and food from the best French restaurants will make you feel like a real aristocrat.

Bed and breakfast hotels are ideal for budget-conscious travelers.

Students can stay in youth hotels or university dormitories, but a room here must be booked in advance.

Tourists traveling by car can stay in comfortable campsites, which are necessarily equipped with a shower, laundry, and some have a cafe, swimming pool and bicycle rental.

Connection

There are countless payphones in France, which you can use by purchasing a Telecarte card at the post office or any tobacco kiosk. Payphones that accept coins - point-phones - have also been preserved. If you need to call home, dial 00, then the country code (Russia code 7), the desired city code and the subscriber's phone number.

Emergency telephone numbers:

• Ambulance - 15
• Fire service - 18
• Pan-European Rescue Service - 112

I love it necessary information you will receive by calling reference number 12. Help desk in Russian - 01-40-07-01-65.

Wi-Fi points are everywhere - on the streets, in cafes, bars, post offices, and transport stations.

Transport

France has well-developed air and rail connections. High-speed trains, although not cheap, are very comfortable and save a lot of time. If you plan to travel by train a lot, purchase an InterRail pass, which gives you unlimited travel.

Local taxis have two tariffs - A (0.61 €/km) valid from 7 am to 7 pm from Monday to Saturday, tariff B (3 €/km) - at night and on weekends and holidays. There is a separate charge for boarding a taxi - 2.5 € and each piece of luggage - 1 €. Taxis can be found at special stands or ordered by phone.

Public transport is efficient, in particular buses and trams. The schedule is strictly observed, all equipment is modern and convenient.

Renting a car will cost from 50 € per day; the driver must be over 21 years old and have more than a year of driving experience. To register a rental, you will need an international license and a credit card on which a certain amount is blocked as a deposit, usually 300 €. The cheapest car rental companies are easyCar and Sixti.

Safety and rules of conduct

The rate of violent crime in France is relatively low, but theft of personal property is high. Be especially vigilant in places where there is a large concentration of pickpockets - at the airport, on public transport, in museums, in crowded places near attractions. It is recommended to leave large amounts of cash and valuables in the hotel safe. If you are traveling by car, do not put things on the front seat. It is dangerous to carry bags over your shoulder - they can be snatched by thieves riding high-speed motorcycles.

The sleeping areas are safe at all times, except for some, and are inhabited mainly by people from Africa and Arab countries.

It will be very useful to learn at least a few frequently used words in French before your trip. Most French people are sure that a decent foreigner should be able to communicate in their native dialect. There are often cases when local residents demonstratively do not understand English spoken to them.

There are always a lot of police on the streets. They will always come to the aid of a traveler suffering from an attack of topographical inferiority.

The country has introduced a strict ban on smoking in public places.

How to get there

There are several flights to Paris every day from Moscow, St. Petersburg and major Russian cities. Charles de Gaulle International Airport is located 25 kilometers from Paris; in 45 minutes and 30 € you can reach the French capital. A more economical way is by train or bus.

Traveling by train will be more expensive and will take two days. In addition, you will have to travel with a transfer in Germany or Belgium.

There are many inexpensive, up to 80 €, bus routes to France, but such a trip is not very comfortable, in addition, crossing the borders of Belarus, Poland and Germany can take a lot of time.

The section consists of separate essays:

History of France

Ancient France (1,800,000 - 2090 BC)

The first inhabitants of France appeared a little over a million years ago. A number of Neolithic settlements have been found on the territory of France. Here was one of the centers of formation of the Cro-Magnons. Remarkable monuments of primitive culture have been preserved - the Lascaux Cave, the Cro-Magnon Grotto, etc.

Gaul and Roman conquest (1200 BC – 379 AD)

In the middle 1 thousand BC e. The expanses of France, as well as neighboring countries, were inhabited by Celtic tribes, who are better known to us by their Roman name - Gauls. Ancient Gaul, located between the Rhine, the Mediterranean Sea, the Alps, the Pyrenees and the Atlantic Ocean, was distinguished by a certain unity at the time of its conquest by the Romans: the Celtic conquerors, merging with the local population, passed on their language and way of life. At the same time, the population of Gaul was divided into many independent tribes, there was no unity necessary to resist the Roman conquerors. The Celts founded the cities of Lutetia (Paris), Burdigala (Bordeaux).
Conquest of Gaul by the Romans, which was preceded by the Greek colonization of the southern territories of France (near Marseille), occurred in two stages: the first - the foundation in the 1st century. BC. the province of Narbonnese, the second - the conquests of Julius Caesar (between 58 and 50 BC). Over the next century and a half, the entire territory of what is now France gradually passed to the Romans. The last area conquered by the Romans in 57 BC was Brittany. During this same period, the Latin language and the Roman way of life spread throughout all social classes. Only art and religion have preserved the remnants of the ancient Celtic civilization.
IN late 1st-2nd centuries large cities grow here: Narbo-Marcius (Narbonne), Lugdunum (Lyon), Nemauzus (Nîmes), Arelat (Arles), Burdigala (Bordeaux), agriculture, metallurgy, ceramic and textile production, foreign and domestic trade reach a high level.
When, under Diocletian and Constantine, the Great Empire was divided into four prefectures, with divisions into dioceses and provinces, Gaul formed itself into one of the three dioceses of the Gallic prefecture and was divided into 17 provinces. This structure was preserved until the Great Migration of Peoples.
IN 5th century settled on the territory of Gaul: on the left bank of the Rhine - the Franks and Alemanni, of whom the first quickly conquered all of northern Gaul and subjugated the Alemanni (496); according to the Rhone and Seine - the Burgundians, whose state in the mid-6th century. was also conquered by the Franks; in the southwestern part of Gaul - the Visigoths, ousted from there by the Franks at the beginning of the 6th century. Thus, in the 5th-6th centuries. Gaul became part of the vast Frankish monarchy, from which in the mid-9th century. medieval France stood out.

Frankish Kingdom (486-987)

Franks- a group of West Germanic tribes united in a tribal union, first mentioned in the mid-3rd century. The formation of the Frankish state began with the conquest of 486 in the battle of Soissons by the Salic Franks (a group of Frankish tribes living along the Baltic Sea coast) led by Clovis 1(c. 466-27 November 511) the last part of the Gallo-Roman possessions (between the Seine and Loire rivers). From the name Clovis, meaning “famous in battle,” the name Louis was subsequently formed. According to legend, Clovis was the grandson of the semi-mythical king Merovei, after whom the dynasty was named Merovingian.
OK. 498 Clovis under the influence of his wife and St. Genevieve accepts Catholicism in the Cathedral of Reims along with 3 thousand Frankish soldiers. From this moment on, Clovis gains the support of the clergy and power over the Gallo-Roman population. Near 508 Clovis chooses Paris as his residence. Near 507-511 a set of laws is created - "Salic truth".
During many years of wars, the Franks, led by Clovis, also conquered most of the possessions of the Alemanni on the Rhine (496), the lands of the Visigoths in Aquitaine (507) and the Franks living along the middle reaches of the Rhine. Under the sons of Clovis, the Burgundian king Godomar was defeated (534), and his kingdom was included in the Frankish state. In 536, the Ostrogothic king Witigis abandoned Provence in favor of the Franks. In the 530s, the Alpine possessions of the Alemanni and the lands of the Thuringians between the Weser and the Elbe were also conquered, and in the 550s, the lands of the Bavarians on the Danube.
The Merovingian power was not united. Immediately after the death of Clovis, his 4 sons divided the Frankish state among themselves and only occasionally united for joint campaigns of conquest.
The main parts of the Frankish state were Austrasia, Neutrius and Burgundy. IN 6-7 centuries they waged an incessant struggle among themselves, which was accompanied by the destruction of many members of the warring clans. In the 7th century. The influence of the nobility increased. Her power becomes more significant than the power of kings, who were called lazy kings for their unwillingness and inability to govern. The decision of state affairs passes into the hands of the mayors, appointed by the king in each kingdom from representatives of the most noble families. The last ruler of the Merovingian dynasty was King Childeric 3(reigned from 743 to 751, died in 754).
IN 612 becomes majordomo in Austrasia Pepin 1(the Pipinid dynasty is founded). He seeks recognition of himself as majordomo also in Neustria and Burgundy. His son Charles Martell(mayor in 715-741), retaining the rights of mayor in these kingdoms, again subjugated Thuringia, Alemannia and Bavaria, which had fallen away during the weakening of the Merovingian power, and restored power over Aquitaine and Provence. His victory over the Arabs Poitiers in 732 stopped Arab expansion into Western Europe.
Son of Charles Martel Pepin the Short with the support of Pope Zacharias, he proclaimed himself king of the Frankish state in 751 Under Pepin, Septimania was conquered from the Arabs (759), and power over Bavaria, Alemannia and Aquitaine was strengthened.
The Frankish state reached its greatest strength under Pepin's son Charlemagne(reigned 768-814), after whom the dynasty was named dynasty Carolingian. Having defeated the Lombards, Charlemagne annexed their possessions in Italy to the Frankish state (774), conquered the lands of the Saxons (772-804), and conquered the region between the Pyrenees and the Ebro River from the Arabs (785-811). Continuing the policy of alliance with the papacy, Charles obtained a coronation from Pope Leo III Emperor (800) of the Western Roman Empire. Charles's capital was Aachen.
His eldest son became his heir, Louis I(814-840) nicknamed Pious. Thus, the tradition according to which the kingdom was divided equally among all heirs was abolished, and from now on only the eldest son succeeded his father.
A war of succession broke out between Louis's sons Charles the Bald, Louis and Lothair 1; this war greatly weakened the empire, and ultimately led to its disintegration into three parts. Treaty of Verdun in 843 The imperial title was assigned to the western part (future France).
Under the Carolingians, the kingdom was constantly attacked by the Vikings, who fortified themselves in Normandy
The last king of this dynasty was Louis 5. After his death in 987 a new king is elected by the nobility - Hugo nicknamed Capet (after the priest's robe he wore), and this nickname gave the name to the entire dynasty Capetian.

Medieval France

Capetians (987-1328)

During the last Carolingians, France began to split into feudal possessions, and with the accession of the Capetian dynasty to the throne, there were nine main possessions in the kingdom: 1) the County of Flanders, 2) the Duchy of Normandy, 3) the Duchy of France, 4) the Duchy of Burgundy, 5) the Duchy of Aquitaine (Guienne) ), 6) Duchy of Gascony, 7) County of Toulouse, 8) Marquisate of Gothia and 9) County of Barcelona (Spanish Mark). Over time, fragmentation went even further; From these possessions, new ones emerged, of which the most significant were the counties of Brittany, Blois, Anjou, Troyes, Nevers, and Bourbon.
The immediate possession of the first kings of the Capetian dynasty was a narrow territory stretching north and south of Paris and very slowly expanding in different directions; during the first two centuries (987-118) it only doubled. At the same time, most of what was then France was under the rule of the English kings.
IN 1066 Duke William of Normandy conquered England, as a result of which Normandy and England united with each other.
A century after this ( 1154) became kings of England and dukes of Normandy Counts of Anjou (Plantagenets), and the first king from this dynasty, Henry II, thanks to his marriage with the heiress of Aquitaine, Eleanor, acquired the entire southwest of France.
Under the Capetians, for the first time in history, religious wars acquired an unprecedented scale. First Crusade started in 1095 The bravest and strongest nobles from all over Europe headed to Jerusalem to liberate the Holy Sepulcher from Muslims after ordinary townspeople were defeated by the Turks. Jerusalem was captured on July 15, 1099.
The unification of disparate lands was started by Philip 2 Augustus (1180-1223), who acquired part of Normandy, Brittany, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Auvergne and other lands.
Grandson of Philip 2, Louis 9th Saint(1226-1270), became king at the age of 12. Until he grew up, his mother Blanca of Castile ruled the country. Louis 9th made important acquisitions in the south of France; The counts of Toulouse had to recognize the authority of the king of France over themselves and cede to him a significant part of their possessions, and the cessation of the Toulouse house in 1272 entailed, under Philip 3, the annexation of the rest of these possessions to the royal lands. Under Louis 9, two crusades took place - the 7th and 8th, both of which were unsuccessful for the French king. During the 8th campaign he died.
Philip 4 Handsome(1285-1314) acquired Lyon and its region in 1312, and with his marriage to Joanna of Navarre created the basis for future claims of the royal house to her heritage (Champagne, etc.), which later (1361), under John the Good, was finally attached. Under Philip 4, the Templar Order was defeated, and the papal throne was moved to Avignon.
Until 1328, France was ruled by the direct heirs of Hugo Capet. The last direct descendant of Hugo, Charles IV, succeeds Philip 6 belonging to a branch Valois, which also belonged to the Capetian dynasty. The Valois dynasty would rule France until 1589, when Henry 4 of the Capetian dynasty of the Bourbon branch ascended the throne.

Valois dynasty. Hundred Years' War (1328-1453)

The successes of royal power in France over the century and a half from the accession of Philip to the throne on August 2 (1180) to the end of the Capetian dynasty (1328) were very significant: the royal domains expanded greatly (with many lands falling into the hands of other members of the royal family), while the possessions feudal lords and the English king were reduced. But under the first king of the new dynasty, the Hundred Years' War with the British began (1328-1453). At the same time, the population suffered greatly from the plague and several civil wars.
The Hundred Years' War was started by the English king Edward 3, who was on the maternal side the grandson of the French king Philip 4 the Fair from the Capetian dynasty. After death in 1328 Charles 4, the last representative of the direct branch of the Capetians, and the coronation of Philip 6 (Valois) according to Salic law, Edward declared his rights to the French throne. In the fall of 1337, the British launched an offensive in Picardy. They were supported by the Flanders cities and feudal lords and the cities of southwestern France.
The first stage of the war was successful for England. Edward won a number of convincing victories, including Battle of Crecy(1346). In 1347 the British conquered the port of Calais. In 1356, the English army under the command of the son of Edward 3, the Black Prince, inflicted a crushing defeat on the French at the Battle of Poitiers, capturing King John 2 the Good. Military failures and economic difficulties led to popular uprisings - the Parisian Revolt (1357-1358) and the Jacquerie (peasant revolt of 1358). The French were forced to conclude a humiliating peace for France at Bretigny (1360).
Taking advantage of the respite, King Charles 5 of the French reorganized the army, strengthening it with artillery, and carried out economic reforms. This allowed the French to achieve significant military successes in the second stage of the war, in the 1370s. Due to the extreme exhaustion of both sides, in 1396 they concluded a truce.
However, under the next French king, Charles 6 the Madman, the British again began to win victories, in particular they defeated the French in Battle of Agincourt(1415). King Henry 5, who occupied the English throne at that time, subjugated approximately half of the territory of France in five years and achieved the conclusion of the Treaty of Troyes (1420), providing for the unification of the two countries under the rule of the English crown, after the conclusion of the Treaty of Troyes and until 1801 the kings England bore the title of kings of France.
The turning point came in the 1420s, at the fourth stage of the war, after the French army was led by Joan of Arc. Under her leadership, the French liberated Orleans from the English (1429). Even the execution of Joan of Arc in 1431 did not prevent the French from successfully end hostilities.In 1435, the Duke of Burgundy concluded an alliance treaty with the king of France Karl 7. In 1436 Paris came under French control. In 1450, the French army won a landslide victory in the battle of the Norman city of Caen. In 1453, the surrender of the English garrison in Bordeaux brought an end to the Hundred Years' War.
Under Charles 7, the unification of French lands, interrupted by the war, continued. When he succeeded Louis 11(1461-1483) in 1477 the Duchy of Burgundy was annexed. In addition, this king acquired by right of inheritance from the last Count of Anjou Provence (1481), conquered Boulogne (1477) and subjugated Picardy. Louis 11 is known for his cruelty and intrigue, which allowed him to make royal power absolute. At the same time, Louis patronized the sciences and arts, especially medicine and surgery, and reorganized Faculty of Medicine at the University of Paris, founded a printing house at the Sorbonne and restored the post office.
Under Charles 8 (1483-1498), the male line of the ruling house of Brittany ceased (1488); the heir to his rights was the wife of Charles 8, after his death she married Louis 12 (1498-1515), which prepared the annexation of Brittany. Thus, France enters the new history almost united, and it remains to expand mainly to the east. Charles 8 and Louis 12 fought wars in Italy.

Renaissance

Louis 12 succeeded Francis 1(1515-1547), his cousin and son-in-law (his wife is Claude of France, daughter of Louis 12). He began his reign with a swift and successful campaign in Italy. Under Francis, the absolute monarchy is strengthening, the opinion of parliament is not taken into account. The economy is developing, at the same time taxes are increasing and the costs of maintaining the yard are increasing. Francis became interested in the culture of the Italian Renaissance. Its castles are decorated by the best masters from Italy; Leonardo da Vinci spent the last years of his life in Amboise. Beginning with the reign of Francis 1, followers of the Reformation appeared in France.
Henry 2(1547-1559) succeeded his father on the throne in 1547. Having undertaken several lightning-fast, well-planned operations, Henry 2 recaptured Calais from the British and established control over dioceses such as Metz, Toul and Verdun, which previously belonged to the Holy Roman Empire. His life ended unexpectedly: in 1559, while fighting at a tournament with one of the nobles, he fell, pierced by a spear, in front of his wife and mistress.
Henry's wife was Catherine de' Medici, a representative of a family of famous Italian bankers. After the untimely death of the king, Catherine played a decisive role in French politics for a quarter of a century, although her three sons, Francis 2, Charles 9 and Henry 3, officially ruled. Francis II, was influenced by the powerful Duke of Guise and his brother the Cardinal of Lorraine. They were uncles to Queen Mary Stuart (of Scotland), to whom Francis 2 was engaged as a child. A year after taking the throne, Francis died and his ten-year-old brother took the throne. Karl 9(1560-1574), entirely under the influence of his mother.

Religious wars

While Catherine succeeded in guiding the child king, the power of the French monarchy suddenly began to falter. The policy of persecution of Protestants, begun by Francis I and intensified under Charles, ceased to justify itself. Calvinism spread widely throughout France. Huguenots (as the French Calvinists were called) were predominantly townspeople and nobles, often rich and influential.
The decline in the king's authority and the disruption of public order were only a partial consequence of the religious schism. Deprived of the opportunity to wage wars abroad and not constrained by the prohibitions of a strong monarch, the nobles sought to disobey the weakening monarchy and encroached on the rights of the king. With the ensuing unrest, it was already difficult to resolve religious disputes, and the country split into two opposing camps. The Guise family took the position of defenders of the Catholic faith. Their rivals were moderate Catholics, like Montmorency, and Huguenots, like Condé and Coligny. In 1562, open confrontation between the parties began, interspersed with periods of truces and agreements, according to which the Huguenots were given a limited right to be in certain areas and create their own fortifications.
During the formal preparations for the third agreement, which included the marriage of the king's sister Margaret to Henry of Bourbon, the young king of Navarre and the main leader of the Huguenots, Charles 9 organized a terrible massacre of his opponents on the eve of St. Bartholomew on the night of 23 to 24 August 1572. Henry of Navarre managed to escape, but thousands of his associates were killed.
Charles 9 died two years later and was succeeded by his brother Henry 3(1575-1589). Henry returned to France at the height of the religious wars. On February 11, 1575, he was crowned at Reims Cathedral. And two days later he married Louise of Vaudemont-Lorraine. Lacking the means to end the war, Henry made concessions to the Huguenots. The latter received freedom of religion and participation in local parliaments. Thus, some cities inhabited entirely by Huguenots became completely independent of royal power. The king's actions provoked strong protest from the Catholic League, led by Henry of Guise and his brother Louis, Cardinal of Lorraine. The brothers firmly decided to get rid of Henry 3 and continue the war with the Huguenots. In 1577, a new, sixth, civil religious war broke out, which lasted three years. The Protestants were led by Henry of Navarre, who survived the Night of St. Bartholomew by hastily converting to Catholicism.
Since the king had no children, his closest blood relative had to succeed him. Ironically, this relative (in the 21st generation) was the same Henry of Navarre- Bourbon. Married, among other things, to the king's sister Margaret.
Henry of Navarre won landslide victories. He was supported by Queen Elizabeth of England and German Protestants. King Henry 3 tried with all his might to end the war. On May 12, 1588, Paris rebelled against the king, who was forced to hastily leave the capital and move his residence to Blois. Heinrich Guise solemnly entered Paris.
In this situation, Henry 3 could only be saved by the most drastic measures. The king convened the States General, to which his enemy also arrived. On December 23, 1588, Heinrich Guise went to the meeting of the States. Unexpectedly, the king’s guards appeared on his way, who first killed Giza with several dagger blows, and then destroyed all the duke’s guards. The next day, by order of the king, Henry of Guise's brother, Louis, Cardinal of Lorraine, was also captured and then killed.
The murder of the Guise brothers stirred up many Catholic minds. Among them was 22-year-old Dominican monk Jacques Clement. Jacques was an ardent fanatic and enemy of the Huguenots. After Pope Sixtus 5 cursed Henry 3, Jacques Clement decided to kill him. His decision was supported by high-ranking opponents of the king. Henry 3 was killed by Clément during an audience.
Before his death, Henry declared Henry of Navarre as his successor.
Although Henry of Navarre now had military superiority and had the support of a group of moderate Catholics, he returned to Paris only after renouncing the Protestant faith and was crowned at Chartres in 1594. The end of the religious wars was completed by the Edict of Nantes in 1598. The Huguenots were officially recognized as a minority entitled for labor and self-defense in some areas and cities.
During the reign Henry 4(with which the Bourbon dynasty, a branch of the Capetian dynasty, began) and his famous minister Duke Sully, order was restored in the country and prosperity was achieved. In 1610, the country was plunged into deep mourning when it learned that its king had been killed by the madman François Ravaillac while preparing for a military campaign in the Rhineland.

Bourbons. Absolute monarchy. Age of Enlightenment

After the death of Henry IV, the nine-year-old became heir Louis 13(1601-1643). The central political figure at this time was his mother Queen Marie de' Medici, who then enlisted the support of the Bishop of Luzon, Armand Jean du Plessis (aka Duke, Cardinal Richelieu), who in 1624 became the king's mentor and representative and actually ruled France until the end of his life in 1642. Under Richelieu, the Protestants were finally defeated after the siege and capture of La Rochelle. Richelieu based his policy on the implementation of the program of Henry IV: strengthening the state, its centralization, ensuring the primacy of secular power over the church and the center over the provinces, eliminating the aristocratic opposition, and countering Spanish-Austrian hegemony in Europe. Louis 13 in politics limited himself to supporting Richelieu in his conflicts with the nobility.
After the death of Richelieu, during the childhood of Louis 14, Anna of Austria was regent, who ruled the country with the help of Richelieu's successor, Cardinal Mazarin. Mazarin continued Richelieu's foreign policy until the successful conclusion of the Treaties of Westphalia (1648) and the Treaties of the Pyrenees (1659), but was unable to do anything more significant for France than preserve the monarchy, especially during the uprisings of the nobility known as the Fronde (1648-1653).
Louis 14(1638-1715) differed from his father by his active participation in political life. Immediately after the death of Mazarin (1661), Louis began to govern the state independently.
Louis firmly pursued his policy, successfully choosing ministers and military leaders. The reign of Louis - a time of significant strengthening of the unity of France, its military power, political weight and intellectual prestige, the flowering of culture, went down in history as the Great Age. At the same time, the constant wars waged by Louis and requiring high taxes ruined the country. In the struggle for power, Louis was helped by outstanding personalities: Jean Baptiste Colbert, Minister of Finance (1665-1683), Marquis de Louvois, Minister of War (1666-1691), Sebastian de Vauban, minister of defense fortifications, and such brilliant generals as the Viscount de Turenne and the Prince of Condé.
At the end of his life, Louis was accused of “loving war too much.” His last desperate struggle with all of Europe (the War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1714) ended with the invasion of enemy troops on French soil, the impoverishment of the people and the depletion of the treasury. The country lost all previous conquests. Only a split among the enemy forces and a few very recent victories saved France from complete defeat.
Since all contenders for the throne died before Louis 14, his young great-grandson became his successor Louis 15(1710-1774). While he was small, the country was ruled by a self-appointed regent, the Duke of Orleans. The reign of Louis 15 was in many respects a pathetic parody of the reign of his predecessor. The royal administration continued to sell the rights to collect taxes, but this mechanism lost its effectiveness as the entire tax collection system became corrupt. The army nurtured by Louvois and Vauban became demoralized under the leadership of aristocratic officers who sought appointment to military posts only for the sake of a court career. Nevertheless, Louis 15 paid great attention to the army. French troops first fought in Spain and then participated in two major campaigns against Prussia: the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) and the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). Economic hardships were compounded by unfavorable climatic conditions and epidemics.
At the same time, the 18th century is the era of Enlightenment, the time of Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Diderot, and other French encyclopedists.
Louis 16 succeeded his grandfather Louis 15 in 1774. Under him, after the convening of the Estates General in 1789, the Great French Revolution began. Louis first accepted the constitution of 1791, abandoned absolutism and became a constitutional monarch, but soon began to hesitantly oppose the radical measures of the revolutionaries and even tried to flee the country. On September 21, 1792, he was deposed, tried by the Convention and executed by guillotine. From that moment until the coup of 1799, when Napoleon Bonaparte came to power, many executions took place in France, the country was ruined.
After the coup of the 18th Brumaire, the only power in France was represented by a provisional government consisting of three consuls (Bonaparte, Sieyès, Roger-Ducos). The consuls—or, more precisely, Consul Bonaparte, since the other two were nothing more than his tools—acted with the decisiveness of autocratic power. A constitution was created that was completely monarchical, but retained the appearance of popular power. He was appointed first consul for 10 years. Bonaparte.
All power was now in the hands of Bonaparte. He formed a ministry that included Talleyrand as Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lucien Bonaparte (Minister of the Interior), Fouché (Minister of Police). Since 1804, France has been proclaimed an empire.
The first part of Napoleon's reign was filled with military victories. After this, military luck changed him. Napoleon ruled the country despotically, therefore, after the entry of the allied armies into Paris (March 31, 1814), the Senate appointed by him proclaimed his deposition from the throne on April 3, 1814, publishing in its “Act of Deposition” an entire indictment against him, in which he was accused of violations of the constitution committed with the constant and active support of the Senate.

19th century

April 6 1814 the Senate, acting at the inspiration of Talleyrand and at the request of the allies, proclaimed the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy, represented by Louis 17, subject, however, to taking an oath of allegiance to the constitution drawn up by the Senate, much freer than Napoleonic ones. However, after the restoration of the monarchy, a reaction began. The return of Napoleon in 1815 was greeted joyfully by the people. However, his army was defeated by the British at Waterloo. Napoleon had to sign an abdication from the throne. Louis 17 returned to Paris again. His successor was Karl 10 trying to restore public order that existed before the revolution. This led to July Revolution 1830
The July Revolution meant the final overthrow of the Bourbons. Charles abdicated the throne, like his eldest son, and went into exile in Great Britain. Louis Philippe took the throne.
Although the constitutional regime of the first half of the 19th century. did not meet the conflicting demands of various political parties, this period went down in history as a period of modernization of economics: manufacturing, steam engine, railway, telegraph - all this contributed to the economic rise of France and the emergence of new large capital with all its advantages and disadvantages - a reduction in the rural and growth of the urban population, as well as the formation of a proletariat
On December 2, 1852, as a result of a plebiscite, a constitutional monarchy was established, headed by Napoleon 1's nephew Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who took the name Napoleon 3. Previously, Louis Napoleon was President of the Second Republic (1848-1852). This became the beginning of the Second Empire. At first (until 1860) Napoleon 3 was an almost autocratic monarch. The Senate, State Council, ministers, officials, even mayors of communes (the latter on the basis of the laws of 1852 and 1855, which restored the centralization of the first empire) were appointed by the emperor.
The main business of the government was economic development: encouraging the construction of railways, the establishment of joint-stock companies, the establishment of all kinds of large enterprises, etc. Paris was almost completely rebuilt by Baron Haussmann.
Since 1860, Napoleon 3 began to pursue a more liberal policy in order to restore his authority, which had been shaken due to the war with Austria.
After Napoleon III was captured by the Germans near Sedan (September 1870) during the Franco-Prussian War, the National Assembly meeting in Bordeaux deposed him, and the Second Empire ceased to exist.
In 1871, the French were forced to make peace with Prussia. The country's form of government was changed - from 1870 to 1940 it was the Third Republic led by a president.
After the adoption of the constitution of 1875, the republican system was finally established in the country. The authorities are making great strides in education and in providing citizens with basic freedoms. A state is gradually emerging in which the main values ​​are secularism and democracy. At the same time, France conquered new territories in Africa and Asia. But the republican system remains weak due to the instability of political parties.

France in the 20th century

Defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and the desire for revenge led France to participate in the First World War. France emerged victorious from the First World War, but suffered huge losses. But these losses were overshadowed by the euphoria of triumph: the “crazy” 20s made one forget about the economic difficulties in the country and the political instability caused by the international crisis. The fear generated by the Bolshevik victory in Russia provokes a conservative reaction from the National Bloc, which, after its defeat, was replaced in 1924 by the Cartel of the Left. The republican system is shaken by scandals and demonstrations such as the one that occurred on February 6, 1934.
To counter the extremism of right-wing forces, left-wing parties decide to unite. The National Front, formed in the context of the emerging global crisis, wins the elections of 1936. The government, led by Leon Blum, carries out radical social reforms, but in 1938 the alliance of leftist forces falls apart, in particular due to disagreements over the war in Spain.
At the same time, the threat from powerful fascist states in Europe is growing. And although France’s foreign policy was aimed at peace at any cost, the Nazis’ provocations were becoming more and more targeted. The Second World War, which the Daladier government tried to avoid in Munich, breaks out on September 3, 1939.
In May 1940, as a result of the German invasion, French troops were defeated. The defeat of France, secured by the armistice, leads to the fall of the Third Republic. It is being replaced by a new regime - the French state ("Vichy government"). The government, headed by Marshal Pétain, governs the southern half of France not occupied by the Germans and pursues a policy of national reconstruction. After October 1940, the French state began active cooperation with the Nazi regime. But even this policy, accompanied by a dramatic “hunt for Jews” who were imprisoned in camps and handed over to SS forces for deportation, did not provide Pétain with the opportunity to lead the country on his own: on November 11, 1942, German forces occupied the southern half of France. General de Gaulle appeals from London to the French to continue the fight against the occupiers. A resistance movement is formed, which played a leading role in the liberation of the country.
At the end of the war, an atmosphere of national optimism was established in the country. With the adoption of the new constitution began Fourth Republic. Despite this, General de Gaulle, a prominent participant in the recent war, is concerned about the impossibility of governing the country within a regime that continues to give too much power to the legislature and whose composition of governments reflects too much of the changing fortunes of political majorities. Unheard by anyone, de Gaulle leaves politics. But government instability proves him right. One of the main problems that France faced during this period was the problem of colonies. The heroic role that the colonies played in World War II forced the mother country to change the status of French territories in Africa and on other continents. But the concessions made were not enough, and the French authorities are not always able to reach an agreement that ensures a peaceful future. As a result, France is waging dramatic wars in Indochina and Algeria.
As a result, a new constitution was adopted in 1958 - the Fifth Republic arose. The updated constitution restored a strong and durable presidential power, the legitimacy of which is emphasized by the fact that the president is elected by popular vote (since 1962). General de Gaulle was President of France from 1958 to 1969, leading the country with a stable right-wing majority. Mass unrest of youth and students (the May events in France 1968), caused by the aggravation of economic and social contradictions, as well as a general strike, led to an acute state crisis. Charles de Gaulle was forced to resign (1969).

Paris

11-10 millennium BC The first settlements appear.
around 250-225 BC. The Gallic tribe of Parisians settled on the territory of the island of Cite and founded their capital Lutetia here (Latin Lutetia - housing among the water).
beginning of the 2nd century BC. The city is surrounded by a fortress wall, bridges are being built. The city lives from river trade and tolls for travel on and under bridges.
54 BC Revolt of the Gauls against the Romans.
53 BC Julius Caesar strengthens the city's defenses and gives it religious functions.
52 BC The revolt of the united Gallic tribes against Julius Caesar fails. In Caesar's notes, the city of the Parisians is mentioned for the first time - Parisiorum.
end of 2nd century AD The Rise of Roman Lutetia. The population reached 6 thousand people. But the administrative and religious center until the 17th century. the city of Sens remains.
250 g. Martyrdom of St. Denis in Montmartre. According to legend, St. Denis walked with his severed head to present-day Saint-Denis, after which he was canonized.
IN late 3rd century Due to the raids of Germanic tribes, the townspeople move to the Isle of Cité. The name Parisiorum (city of the Parisians) is assigned to the city.
406 The Germans capture Gaul. Paris manages to escape the invasion.
422 Genevieve, the future saint and patroness of Paris, was born in Nanterre.
451 Genevieve persuades the Parisians to confront the Hun leader Attila, although they initially intend to flee. Before reaching Paris, the Huns turn to Orleans.
470 g The siege of the city begins, which lasted more than 10 years, by the Franks under the leadership of Childeric 1. Genevieve provides the city with bread, which is delivered by barges along the Seine.
486 Clovis, son of Childeric, defeats the last Roman governor. By agreement with Genevieve, Clovis gains power over the city peacefully.
496 Under the influence of his wife, Clovis converts to Christianity.
502 St. dies in Paris. Genevieve.
507 Clovis defeats the Germanic tribes, in honor of which he founded the Church of Peter and Paul on the hill of Sainte-Genevieve.
508 Paris is the capital of the Frankish Merovingian state.
511 After the death of Clovis 1, the Merovingian kingdom was divided between his 4 sons. The kingdoms of Austrasia, Neustria, Burgundy and Aquitaine are formed.
mid 5th - 6th century The population of Paris reaches 20 thousand people.
567 Paris becomes the joint possession of all Merovingian kings.
585 After a fire that partially destroyed buildings on the Ile de la Cité, the city gradually falls into decay.
751 Pepin 3 the Short was proclaimed king of the Franks. The last king of the Merovingian dynasty, Childeric III, was tonsured a monk. After the son of Pepin the Short, Charlemagne, the dynasty received the name Carolingian.
814-840 Reign of Louis the Pious. After him, Charles II the Bald ascends to the throne. After the division of Charlemagne's empire, he becomes king of France. The Norman raids begin.
856 The Normans capture the left bank of the city.
861 The Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés was sacked.
885 The beginning of a two-year siege of the city by the Normans.
888 Death of Karl Tolstoy. The high nobility elects Count Ed as king. Charles 4 Simpleton refuses to recognize Ed as king.
893 Coronation of Charles 4. He gets a real opportunity to rule the state after the death of Ed (898).
987 Hugo Capet ascends the throne.
1031-1060 Reign of Henry 1. Paris expands due to the development of the right bank.
1108-1137 The reign of Louis 6 Tolstoy. During his reign, the Chatelet fortress was built, near whose walls a market began to operate. The city is governed by the royal provost, an official with judicial, fiscal and military powers.
1141 Louis 7 sells the city port to the guild of Parisian river merchants. The guild's emblem with the image of a boat becomes the city's coat of arms.
1186 Philip 2 August issues a decree on improving city roads, the main task is to end unsanitary conditions.
1189-1209 Construction of a new city wall.
1190-1202 The Louvre Castle is being built.
1253 The building of the future Sorbonne was laid.
1381, 1413 Popular riots in Paris.
1420-1436 During the Hundred Years' War the city was occupied by the British.
1436 The troops of Charles 7 occupy the city.
1461 Coronation of Louis 11, who then transfers his government to Tours.
1469 The beginning of printing. The first text was published at the Sorbonne.
1515-1547 Reign of Francis 1. The Provost becomes an official with limited powers. The governor of Paris is responsible for public order. Francis reconstructs the Louvre and begins to assemble the royal art collection.
1528 Paris regains its status as the main city of the kingdom.
1559 The death of Henry II at a knight's tour in the courtyard of the Tournelle Palace (Place des Vosges).
24 August 1572 St. Bartholomew's Night (more than 5 thousand people died).
1588 Revolt of supporters of the Catholic League in Paris led by Heinrich Guise.
1590 Henry IV Bourbon besieges Paris.
1593 Henry 4 utters the famous phrase “Paris is worth a mass” and returns to Catholicism. The people of Paris allow him to enter the city. Under Henry IV, numerous urban planning projects were carried out.
1606 The New Bridge was built.
1610-1643 The reign of Louis 13. The Botanical Garden appears, the Marais district expands, the Luxembourg Palace is built, and the construction of a new city wall, begun under Francis 1, is completed.
1622 Paris becomes an archbishopric.
1629 The Palais Royal was built by order of Richelieu.
1631 The first French newspaper was founded.
1635 Richelieu founded the French Academy.
1648, 1650 Fronde, the royal court is forced to leave Paris.
1665 The first French scientific journal is published.
1666 The French Academy of Sciences was founded.
1669 Construction of Versailles begins.
1670 Grand boulevards are being built, the city is expanding with suburbs.
1671 The king moves to Versailles.
1686 The first Parisian cafe "Prokop" was opened
1702 The Royal Ordinance establishes the division of the city into 20 districts.
1757 Start of construction of the Church of St. Genevieve (Pantheon)
1774-1792 Construction of a closed sewer system.
July 14, 1789 Storming and destruction of the Bastille.
1804 Coronation of Napoleon in Notre Dame, for which the area in front of the cathedral is cleared by demolishing buildings. The first iron bridge is being built - the Pont des Arts. The numbering of houses is introduced, dividing into even and odd sides.
1808 Construction of canals and fountains. The Arc de Triomphe Carrousel is open.
1811 Creation of a fire battalion.
1814 The entry of Russian and Prussian troops led by the Russian Tsar and the Prussian King into Paris.
1833-1848 Rambuteau becomes Prefect of the Seine. He changed the appearance of the city to improve its air supply, improved the water supply, increased the amount of green space and took care of the cleanliness of the streets.
1836 Opening of the Arc de Triomphe. The reconstruction of the Place de la Concorde has been completed.
1840 Transfer of the ashes of Napoleon 1 to Paris.
1853 Baron Haussmann is appointed prefect of the department of the Seine.
1853-1868 Rebuilding Paris by Haussmann.
1855
1864 The restoration of Notre Dame Cathedral has been completed.
1865 Reconstruction of the Ile de la Cité.
1867 World Exhibition in Paris.
1871 The surrender of Paris after the siege by Prussian troops. Fire in the city during the Paris Commune. The defeat of the Paris Commune.
1875 Opening of the Paris Opera.
1887-1889 Construction of the Eiffel Tower.
1889 World Exhibition in Paris.
1890s-1914 Belle Epoque (Belle Epoque) style
1892 The appearance of the first electric tram.
1895 The first public film showing of the Lumiere brothers.
1896 Start of work on laying the metro.
1914 The Battle of Paris during the First World War. Mobilization of taxis to deliver troops and ammunition to the front. Masterpieces of the Louvre are transported to Toulouse.
1920s Parisian bohemians settle in the Montparnasse area. Art Deco style
1935 Beginning of television broadcasting.
1940-1944 German occupation.

Biography of Claude Monet

Claude Oscar Monet was born on November 14 1840 in Paris, in the family of a grocer. Oscar's early years were spent in Le Havre. Young Monet began his creative activity by drawing caricatures, which were exhibited in the window of a Le Havre framer, and received his first painting lessons from the landscape painter E. Boudin, wandering with him along the coast and learning the techniques of working in the plein air.
IN 1859 Having received the necessary funds from his father, Monet goes to Paris to study painting. In 1860, Monet visited the Suisse Academy, where he met Camille Pissarro. In 1861, Claude was drafted into the army, and he went to Algeria, but in 1862, due to illness, he returned to France. His father again sent him to Paris, where the artist entered the workshop of the then popular C. Gleyre, where he worked until 1864. But the formation of his creative method did not take place in the studio, but in the process of joint work in the open air with those close to him in spirit. Renoir, F. Basile and A. Sisley.
In 1865 and 1866 Monet exhibited at the Salon, and his paintings had modest success. The most significant of the artist's early works are "Breakfast on the Grass", "Terrace at Sainte-Adresse", "Women in the Garden". This time was very difficult for Monet, who was extremely strapped for money, constantly pursued by creditors and even tried to commit suicide. The artist has to constantly move from place to place, now to Le Havre, now to Sèvres, now to Sainte-Adresse, now to Paris, where he paints city landscapes.
In 1868, Monet, who exhibited five paintings at the International Exhibition of Marine Painters in Le Havre, received a silver medal, but the paintings were taken by creditors to pay off the debt. In 1869, Monet lives in the village of Saint-Michel, a few kilometers from Paris. O. Renoir often comes here, and the artists work together. A nearby picturesque restaurant with a bath served as the inspiration for a series of landscapes by Monet ( "Paddling pool"). Meanwhile, the Salon jury continues to stubbornly reject Monet's works: in the period 1867-70. Only one painting by the artist was accepted.
IN 1870 Monet married Camille Doncier; the dowry received for the bride freed him from financial problems for some time. The young couple spent Honeymoon in Trouville, where Monet painted several landscapes. Tragic events of 1870-71 forcing the artist to emigrate to London. In London he meets Daubigny and Pissarro, with whom he works on views of the Thames and the fogs of Hyde Park. Daubigny introduces Monet to the French art dealer Durand-Ruel, who had a gallery on Bond Street. Subsequently, Durand-Ruel provided invaluable assistance to the Impressionists in organizing exhibitions and selling paintings. In 1871, Monet learned of his father's death and a few months later left for France. On the way, he visits Holland, where, amazed by the splendor of the landscapes, he stops for a while and paints several paintings.
Upon returning to Paris, Monet settled in Argenteuil. The artist finds himself a house with a garden where he can practice floriculture; over time, this activity turned into a real passion for him. In 1872-75. Monet creates some of his best paintings ( "Lady with an Umbrella" ("Madame Monet with her Son"), "Boulevard of the Capuchins", "Impression. Rising Sun"). Monet paints the Seine with passion. Having equipped a studio boat, he sails along the Seine, capturing river landscapes in sketches ( "Regatta in Argenteuil").
IN 1874 The "Anonymous Society of Painters, Artists and Engravers", organized by Monet and his Impressionist friends, is holding an exhibition at which, in particular, Monet's painting was presented "Impression. Rising Sun". Actually, based on the name of this painting, the organizing artists received the name “Impressionists” (from the French impression - impression). The exhibition was criticized in the press, and the public reacted negatively to it. The second exhibition of the group, organized in the Durand-Ruel workshop in 1876, also did not meet with critical understanding. After the failure of the exhibition, it became extremely difficult to sell paintings, prices fell, and a period of financial difficulties began again for Monet. Monet had several wealthy patrons who saved him from creditors, bought and commissioned paintings from him. The most significant of them was the financier Ernest Hoschedé, whom Monet met in 1876. Soon after meeting, Hoschedé commissioned Monet to create a series of decorative paintings for his mansion in Montgeron. Late autumn 1876 ​​Monet arrives in Paris with the desire to depict views of the winter city through a veil of fog; he decides to make the Saint-Lazare train station his object. With the permission of the director of railways, he is located at the station and works all day long, resulting in a dozen canvases depicting the largest railway junction in France ( "Gare Saint-Lazare. Train arrival"). Seven of them were exhibited at the third Impressionist exhibition that same year. Already during these years, the artist showed interest in depicting the same motif from different angles. In 1877 the third exhibition of the Impressionists took place, and in 1879 the fourth. The public remains hostile to this direction, and Monet's financial situation, again besieged by creditors, seems hopeless. As a result, he moves his family from Argenteuil to Vetheuil, where he lives with the Hoschedes and paints several magnificent landscapes with views of the surrounding area ( "The Artist's Garden at Vetheuil"). In 1879, after a long illness, Camilla dies. Monet is left alone with two children.
IN 1880 In the hall of the magazine "Vi Modern", owned by the publisher and collector Georges Charpentier, an exhibition of eighteen paintings by Monet opens. It brings the artist long-awaited success. The sale of paintings from this exhibition allows Monet to improve his financial situation. In the 1880s. Monet often travels to Normandy, where he is attracted by nature, the sea and the special atmosphere of this land. There he works, living sometimes in Dieppe, sometimes in Pourville, sometimes in Etretat, sometimes in Belle-Isle, and creates a number of magnificent landscapes ( "Mannport Gate to Etretat"). In 1883, together with the Hoschede family, Monet moved to Giverny (a place 80 km north of Paris). Next year the artist travels to Italy, to Bordighera ( "Bordighera. Italy"). In 1888 Monet works in Antibes.
IN 1889 Monet finally achieves real and lasting success: in the gallery of the art dealer Georges Petit, simultaneously with an exhibition of works by the sculptor O. Rodin, a retrospective exhibition of Monet is being organized, at which one hundred and forty-five of his works are exhibited, from 1864 to 1889.
Monet becomes a famous and respected painter. Monet lived in Giverny for 43 years until his death. The artist rented a house from a certain Norman landowner, bought a neighboring plot of land with a pond and laid out two gardens: one in the traditional French style, the other exotic, the so-called “Garden on the Water”. The garden became Monet's favorite brainchild; Motifs of the “garden at Giverny” occupy a large place in the artist’s work ( "Iris garden in Giverny", "Path in the garden of Giverny", "Pond with water lilies", "Japanese bridge"). In 1892, Monet married Alice Hoschede, with whom he had been in love for many years. In 1888, Monet began the cycle "Haystacks" ( "Haystack. Sunset") - the first large series of paintings where the artist tries to capture the nuances of lighting, changing depending on the time of day and weather. He works on several canvases simultaneously, moving from one to another as the lighting effects change. This series was a great success. Monet returns to the experience of "Haystacks" in a new series - "Topolya" ("Poplar on Epte"). This series, exhibited at the Durand-Ruel gallery in 1892, was also a great success, but the larger series was received even more enthusiastically "Rouen Cathedral" ("Rouen Cathedral. Symphony in gray and red"), which Monet worked on in 1892 and 1893. Consistently depicting the change in lighting from dawn to evening twilight, the artist painted fifty views of the majestic Gothic facade.
In 1902, in Giverny, Monet began the cycle "Water lilies" ("Water lilies. Clouds"), which he will work on until his death. The beginning of the new century finds Monet in London; the artist paints the London Houses of Parliament again ( "Parliament Building. Sunset") and a whole series of paintings united by one motif - fog. From 1899 to 1901 Monet traveled to Great Britain three times and in 1904 exhibited thirty-seven views of London at the Durand-Ruel Gallery ( "Waterloo Bridge. Sunset"). In the summer he returns to "Water Lilies" and in February of the following year he participates in a large exhibition of impressionists organized by Durand-Ruel in London, exhibiting 55 of his works. In 1908, Monet set off on his penultimate journey: he and his wife traveled to Venice. The artist spent two months in Venice. Upon returning to France, he continued to work on Venetian landscapes, which he would exhibit only in 1912. At the end of his life, Monet suffered heavy losses: his wife Alice died in 1911, and his eldest son Jean died three years later.
Beginning in 1908, Monet experienced serious vision problems. However, he continued to write until last days. 5th of December 1926 Monet died.
to the Giverny page

Chenonceau

Story

The possessions of Chenonceau on the banks of the Cher River belonged to to the Mark family. In 1512, the family was forced to sell the estate due to debts. It was bought by a tax collector from Normandy Boye. The old estate looked more like a castle and was not suitable for social life, so only a tower remained from it, and a square palace in the Renaissance style was built on the water. After the death of the Boyer couple, King Francis 1, who once visited the palace, decided to take it over. He accused Boyer, who towards the end of his life became the finance manager of the French king in Italy, of large financial expenses and took the estate from the heir as compensation.
The king came to the palace with the Dauphin Henry 2 and his retinue, which included the favorites of the king and his heir - the Duchess of Etampes and Diana de Poitiers, to hunt. After Francis' death, Henry donated the estate Diane de Poitiers. Under Diana, the estate was constantly developing - a garden was laid out, a bridge was built connecting the palace with the opposite bank.
Immediately after Henry's death at the tournament, Catherine de' Medici took the crown jewels and Chenonceau from Diana. Catherine celebrated her victory over her rival with a large tournament in honor of her son Francis II in Chenonceau. Catherine built her own opposite Diana’s garden and built a bridge, turning it into a covered one. Here, despite the ongoing civil war, she organized holidays.
After the death of Catherine, Chenonceau withdrew Queen Louise, wife of Henry 3, killed by the fanatic Jean Clément. The queen, grieving for her husband, retired to the palace, changing the interiors to black, and devoted the rest of her life to mourning her husband, prayers and helping the local poor. Queen Louise wore white clothes as a sign of mourning, for which she was called the White Lady.
In the 18th century The palace passed to the tax farmer Claude Dupin, whose wife loved to surround herself with outstanding minds of that time - Montesquieu, Condillac, Voltaire often visited the estate. Rousseau was Madame's secretary and gave lessons to her daughter.
The revolution, fortunately, did not affect the palace. Since the beginning of the 20th century. the estate belongs to the Meunier family.

Description

A long alley from the entrance leads to Markov Tower- the only thing that has survived from the small fortress built by the first owners. It was rebuilt in the Renaissance style. Now it houses a small souvenir shop.
After crossing the bridge, visitors enter the main part palace. It is not difficult to get around the cramped rooms of the palace in half an hour. On the ground floor there are (in a circle, clockwise): the guard's room (with an oak door and 16th-century tapestries), a chapel, the room of Diane of Poitiers (with 16th-century tapestries, the Madonna and Child by Murillo), a green office in which Catherine de' Medici worked (tapestry, Italian cabinets of the 16th century, paintings by Tintoreto, Jordan, Veronese, Poussin, Van Dyck, etc.), Catherine's library. A gallery (essentially a covered bridge) leads to the other side of the river. Going down the stairs, we find ourselves in the kitchen. Rising back up and continuing to walk around the rooms in a circle, we pass through the room of Francis 1 and the room of Louis 14.
Then you need to climb the stairs to the second floor. Here you can see the room of the five queens, in which two daughters and three daughters-in-law of Catherine de Medici lived at different times (the room also contains a 16th century tapestry and works by Rubens and Minyard), and Catherine’s bedroom.
On the third floor there is a bedroom in black tones, in which the widowed Queen Louise spent her time.
To the left of the palace, if you stand with your back to it, garden, broken by Catherine de Medici, on the right by Diane of Poitiers. In addition, it is interesting to see the 16th century farm, vegetable garden, wine cellars, and, if you have time, a labyrinth.
journey /

Amboise

Story

This site was originally a Gallo-Roman camp. In the 9th century Amboise was given to the Counts of Anjou, and they built a fortress on this site. After one of the owners of the castle unsuccessfully participated in a conspiracy against the advisor of King Charles 7, the castle became the property of the king. The first of the kings to truly live here was the son of Charles 7, Louis 11. His main occupation was hunting, so he did not pay much attention to the castle itself, unlike his son Charles 8.
Karl 8(late 15th century) loved to surround himself with courtiers, guards, artists and poets. There was not enough space in the castle for the entire retinue and its staff, so it was decided to expand the castle. From Italy, where he went to claim the throne of Naples, the king brought many works of Italian art, as well as architects, craftsmen and gardeners. Italian craftsmen introduced features of the Italian Renaissance into the appearance of the castle, although the castle itself remained essentially Gothic. Work to decorate and improve the castle continued until the king’s absurd death from being hit by a doorframe in 1498.
For the sake of inheritance Louis 12 divorced Jeanne of France and married Charles 8th's widow, Anna. Amboise, the creation of Charles 8, did not suit Louis - he preferred to move to. However, he continued work in the palace - on his orders, a large gallery and 2 towers were built. From the beginning of the 16th century. Louise of Savoy and her children, Margaret (the future Margaret of Navarre) and the heir to the throne, Francis of Angoulême, settled in the palace.
King Francis 1 he loved entertainment, luxury and art, and besides, he loved to start grandiose projects. Under him, work was completed in Amboise and Blois and construction of Chambord began. Under Francis, as under Charles 8, Amboise became the center of secular and political life. Since 1516, Leonardo da Vinci settled not far from the palace, on the Clos Luce estate, at the invitation of Francis. Francis admired da Vinci and often visited him, for which an underground passage was dug from the palace to da Vinci's estate. As a legacy to the king, the artist left Mona Lisa and two paintings depicting St. Anna and John the Baptist. After the death of Francis, the children of his successor, Henry 2 and Catherine de Medici, were raised here.
During the civil war that began after the death of Henry 2, Amboise became the site of reprisals against the conspiracy. After this, the castles of the Loire were abandoned by the court. Kings come to Amboise to hunt, and noble prisoners are also kept here.
During and after the Revolution, Amboise was greatly ruined, but then returned to the possession of the French kings.
travel / sights in brief

Blois

Story

In medieval Latin monuments, Blois bears the Latin name Blesum (also Blesis and Blesa), from the 15th century. it changed in Blaisois. When the ancient count family, to which the English king Stephen (1135-1154) also belonged, died out in male descent, the county of Blois passed by marriage contract to the house of Chatillon, whose last descendant sold his possessions to the son of Charles 5, Duke Louis of Orleans (1391). Louis d'Orléans and his wife, Valentina Visconti of Milan, laid the foundation for a collection of books and documents, which later formed the famous palace library, enriched with treasures looted in Milan and Naples. Under the grandson of Louis d'Orléans, King Louis XII, Blois was annexed to the crown in 1498.
Louis 12 was the first crowned owner of the palace and began the construction of a new wing in the Flamboyant Gothic style, through which visitors enter the courtyard, decorated with the figure of Louis 2. Louis often decided on the most important state affairs in the castle. On January 15, 1499, an alliance was concluded here between France and Venice, and on March 14, 1513, an offensive and defensive alliance was concluded against the Pope and the Emperor.
After the death of Louis 2 Francis 1 often came to the castle and also began to expand it to accommodate a large retinue. Under him, a wing to the right of the entrance was built in the Renaissance style. The corner room connecting these two wings is the oldest part of the palace, a medieval castle in the Gothic style (10th century), where a Gothic hall from the 13th century has been preserved. Under Francis, famous poets, artists and architects lived in the palace, including Benvenuto Cellini.
During the religious wars Catherine de' Medici, the widow of Henry 2, continues to lead the same lifestyle - she organizes numerous holidays in castles on the Loire. Intrigues and conspiracies are woven here. After St. Bartholomew's Night, the castles of the Loire were abandoned for three years. Henry 3 was forced to retire to Blois, leaving Paris to Duke Henri de Guise. A conspiracy arose to eliminate Henry 3, but he was warned. The Duke of Guise was invited to Blois, where he was killed. A few days later, Catherine died in the palace, and six months later Jacques Clement killed Henry 3.
The third wing, closing the courtyard, in the classicist style, was built by Gaston d'Orléans, who was in exile here.
From the 17th century the palace was abandoned and looted during the Revolution. In December 1870, Blois was occupied by the Prussians and remained in their hands until a preliminary peace treaty was concluded. In the 20th century the palace was restored.

Description

Hall of the States General(13th century). The hall was used for judicial decisions by the Counts of Blois. Under Henry III, the Estates General met here twice (1576 and 1588). The hall has retained its original structure. The painting was made based on the medieval one in the 19th century. From the 13th century castle. The tower du Foix has also been preserved, on a terrace overlooking the city.
Wing of Louis 2(late 15th - early 16th century). The first floor of the royal apartments was in the 19th century. converted into the Blois Art Museum. The collection represents works from the 16th to the 19th centuries, including French and Flemish tapestries.
Chapel of St. Gale was also built by Louis 12th.
Francis Wing 1(1515-1524). Wing Francis 1 was built on the basis of a 13th century fortress, and its two-meter thick walls are partially preserved inside.
First floor: apartments of Francis 1st and then Catherine de Medici, royal hall - a hall used for ceremonies, guard hall - weapons from the 15th-17th centuries are presented here, royal bedroom - the bedroom of Catherine de Medici, in which she died in 1589, study - this the room retains the decoration of the 1520s (the interior is made in the form of carved wooden panels).
Second floor - associated with the murder of the Duke of Guise. Paintings from the Hall of Guise (19th century) tell the story of the religious wars and the assassination of the Duke of Guise. According to legend, the murder took place in the next room, the so-called king's bedroom.
travel / sights in brief

Brittany

Some Breton words and roots

Bihan, vihan Biniou Beg Braz, bras, vraz, vras Castel, kastell Chistr Coat, hoat, c'hoatr, koad Coz, cos, kozh Creis, kreis, kreiz Douar Dour Du Enez, Enes Gwenn, Guen, ven Gwern Hir Huel, huella, Uhel Iliz Izel, izella Kenavo Ker, kkr, guer, quer Krampouezh Lan Lann Lost Manner Maez, mez, mez Men Menez, mene Meur,veur Milin, vilin, meilh, meil, veil Mor, vor Nevez, neve Pell Penn, pen plou (plo, plu, ple) Porzh, porz, porz Run, run, reun Stang, stang Ster Toull, toul Ti, ty tre

- small - bagpipes - point, vertex - big - lock - cider - forest - old - a lot of - Earth - water - night - island - white - swamp - long - tall, raised - church - short - Goodbye - village, house, dwelling - Crap - church, monastery - plain - end, tail - house, estate - large field, plain - stone - hill, mountain - big, important - mill - sea - new - far - end, edge, beginning, head - settlement - haven, refuge, bay, port - hill, elevation - bay, pond - shore - hole, opening - house - habitat

Story

In the prehistoric period, the peninsula looked different - the sea level was almost 100 meters lower than now, so many prehistoric monuments ended up on the shore or under water. The water level began to rise in the 10th millennium BC. Near 5000 BC people began to cultivate the land and lead a sedentary lifestyle. The most ancient ones belong to this period megaliths. Megalithic burial grounds were built, the oldest of which is the Barnenez pyramid (4600 BC, accessible by bus from Morlaix), and rows of menirs, presumably for astronomical and religious purposes.
Around 500 BC the peninsula was conquered Celts. The peninsula was named Armorica - a country near the sea.
IN 57 BC came Romans. For 400 years, Armorica was part of the Roman province. A network of roads was built and several cities were founded, among them Rennes, Nantes and Van. In 250-300 AD. The Roman Empire began to lose power, cities were ravaged by Frankish and Saxon pirates.
IN 5-6th century many representatives of other Celtic people, Britons, from Wales and Cornwall crossed the English Channel and settled in Armorica, which they called Brittany. This migration continued for 200 years. Among the settlers were monks who spread Christianity throughout the peninsula; some were canonized. Monastic monasteries and monasteries were built. Religious customs arose that survive today - penitential processions and pilgrimages. Many settlements received characteristic Breton names.
Seven saints are considered the most important: Samson, Malo, Brieux, Paul Aurelien, Patern, Corentin and Tugdual, in their honor from the 12th century. The pilgrimage route to the seven cities where the saints are buried - Tro Breiz - becomes popular. Previously, the pilgrimage lasted a month (600 km). Nowadays, week-long pilgrimages take place every year in one of seven stages.
Kingdom of Brittany. From 6th to 10th century. The Bretons resisted the attempts of the Frankish kings to subjugate the peninsula. The Carolingians were able to create an intermediate zone - Marchais, stretching from Mont-Saint-Michel to the mouth of the Loire. In 819, Nominoe, who came from a noble Breton family, was appointed Count of Vannes by King Louis the Pious, and then his emissary to Brittany. Until Louis's death, Nominoe was loyal to him. In 843, he entered into an alliance with Emperor Lothair (brother of Charles the Bald) and Pepin 2 of Aquitaine and together with them took Nantes. In 845, Nominoe defeated Charles the Bald at the Battle of Ballone and signed an agreement with Charles, in which he formally recognized himself as a vassal in exchange for the title of duke. Under Nominoe, wars with the Normans began. Nominoe's son Erispoe once again defeated Charles the Bald in 851 and received the title of king. Erispoe was killed in 857 by his cousin Salomon, under whom the kingdom reached its peak. At the end of his life, Salomon enjoyed unlimited power, which caused a conspiracy of feudal lords, as a result of which the king was killed in 874. After his death, a civil war began.
The Norman raids from Scandinavia on Brittany began at the end of the 8th century. and became increasingly frequent, especially during the period of civil strife after the death of Salomon. Some peace reigned under King Alain 1 the Great until his death in 907, but after his death Brittany was again divided into parts, and by 919 it was almost completely captured by the Normans. The Normans were defeated by Alain 1's grandson, Alain 2 Crookedbeard in 939 with the help of English troops. Alain II received the title of Duke of Brittany, and he made Nantes the capital of the duchy.
Duchy of Brittany. From the middle of the 10th to the middle of the 14th century. Brittany was a duchy with a weak government, often changing rulers. In the 12th century it came under the rule of the English king and Count of Anjou, Henry II Plantagenet, and then under the direct control of the French crown. As a result, in the 13th century. The Duke of Brittany, who took the oath to the French king, was at the same time, like the Earl of Richmond, a vassal of the English king, and within Brittany itself his power was limited to the feudal nobility - the barons of Vitre and Fougères, the Viscounts of Leon and others.
From 1341 to 1364, the War of the Breton Succession was fought between two families - Pentyvre and Montfort. The war became part of the Hundred Years' War: the first family supported the kings of France, the second - the kings of England. The war ended in favor of the counts of Montfort. For almost a hundred years after this, Brittany was independent from France. People's wealth grew thanks to maritime trade and textile production in Vitre, Locronan and Leon. A university was founded in Nantes in 1460.
Independence ended in 1488, when Duke Francis 2 was defeated by the French King Louis 11 and died soon after. His daughter and heir, Anne of Brittany, was 11 years old at that moment. At the age of 13, she was forced to marry King Charles 8 of France. Brittany became part of the French kingdom, but retained some independence, and Anne ruled it independently as a duchess. Anne's marriage to Charles 8 remained childless, and in order to retain Brittany, Charles's heir, Louis 12, married Anne of Brittany. Their daughter Claude married the future king Francis 1 of Angoulême. Anne of Brittany died in 1514 at the age of 37. Of her 9 children, two survived. During her life she patronized artists and writers and was very popular among the Bretons. In 1505 she made a great pilgrimage to Brittany in the hope of producing a male heir.
In 1532, Francis I, using military force, obtained from the Breton parliament the publication of an act of indissoluble union between the French crown and the Duchy of Brittany. Brittany was thus effectively turned into a French province, but retained internal self-government. In Brittany, an estate-representative body continued to operate - the States of Brittany, which was also in charge of taxation issues.
To the "Brittany" page.

Strasbourg

The first historical evidence of human settlement in the vicinity of Strasbourg dates back to 6000 BC. Around 1300 BC e. The ancestors of the Celts settled in this place. By the end of the 3rd century. BC e. A Celtic settlement called Argentorat is formed, in which there was a market and a place for religious ceremonies. The first mention of Strasbourg dates back to 12 BC, when, under the name Argentorat, it became one of the border cities of the Roman Empire.
From 406, the Allemans finally settled Alsace. In 451 Argentorat was destroyed by Attila's Huns. In 496, after the first victory of the Germanic Franks over the Alamanni, Argentorat first fell into the sphere of influence of the kingdom of the Germanic Franks. Argentorat is renamed Strateburgum (city of roads).
In 842, the grandsons of Charlemagne, Louis the German and Charles the Bald, exchanged the famous Strasbourg Charters - the first written evidence of the existence of the Romance and Old High German languages, thus dividing the Carolingian kingdom among themselves. In 870, Louis the German receives Alsace, which is now part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation as the western part of the Duchy of Swabia (Allemania).
In 974, the city authorities, headed by the bishop who governed the city, received the right to mint their own coins.
In 1482, the last changes were made to the Strasbourg Constitution, which remained unchanged until the Great French Revolution.
In 1621, the Protestant gymnasium, founded in 1538, received university status.
In 1681, the army of King Louis XIV of France besieged Strasbourg and thereby forced the city to recognize the authority of the king. Under the terms of the agreement, the townspeople took an oath of allegiance to Louis, but retained a number of their rights and privileges. From that time on, the city went to France.
In 1870, after the siege, Strasbourg capitulated to Prussia. In 1871, the city became the capital of the imperial state of Alsace-Lorraine. After the abdication of William II in 1918, French troops came to the city.
In 1940, German troops occupied Strasbourg and annexed Alsace. Strasbourg was liberated in 1944.
In 1949, the city was elected as the seat of the Council of Europe. In 1979, the first session of the European Parliament took place in Strasbourg, as well as elections to the European Parliament. In 1992, a decision was made to locate the seat of the European Parliament in Strasbourg, as a result of which construction began on a new building with a meeting room, completed in 1998.

France is, without a doubt, one of the most interesting countries not only in Europe, but throughout the world. Therefore, it is not surprising that about 80 million tourists visit France every year, who are interested in local attractions, beach resorts on the Cote d'Azur, as well as high-class ski resorts. For each of these tourists, France is not only an “eternally sweet image,” as the Russian poet Nikolai Gumilyov thought about this country, but also an amazing vacation.

Geography of France

France is located in Western Europe. In the north, the English Channel (“English Channel”) separates France from Great Britain. In the southwest, France borders with Spain and Andorra, in the southeast with Switzerland and Italy, and in the northeast with Germany, Luxembourg and Belgium. In the West, the coast of France is washed by the Atlantic Ocean, and in the south by the Mediterranean Sea.

France also includes 5 overseas territories (the islands of Guadeloupe, Mayotte, Martinique, Reunion, and Guiana in South America), as well as overseas communities (Saint Barthelemy, Saint Martin, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Wallis and Futuna, French Polynesia ), and overseas territories with special status (Clipperton, New Caledonia and the French Southern and Antarctic Territories).

The total area of ​​France in Europe is 547,030 square meters. km., including the island of Corsica in the Mediterranean Sea. If we also take into account the French overseas territories, then the area of ​​France is 674,843 sq. km.

The landscape of France is very diverse, ranging from the coastal plains in the north and west, to the Alps in the southeast, the Massif Central, and the Pyrenees mountains in the southwest. The highest peak in France is Mont Blanc in the Alps (4,810 m).

Several large rivers (Seine, Loire, Garron and Rhone) and hundreds of small rivers flow through France.

Approximately 27% of France is forested.

Capital

The capital of France is Paris, which is now home to more than 2.3 million people. According to archaeological finds, on the site of modern Paris, a settlement of people (Celts) existed already in the 3rd century BC.

Official language

The official language in France is French, which belongs to the Romance group of the Indo-European language family.

Religion

About 65% of the French population are Catholics, adherents Roman Catholic Church. However, only about 4.5% of French Catholics go to church every week (or more often).

In addition, about 4% of the French population are Muslims, and 3% are Protestants.

French government

According to the 1958 Constitution, France is a parliamentary republic in which the head of state is the President.

The source of legislative power is the bicameral Parliament, consisting of the National Assembly and the Senate. The Senate's legislative powers are limited, and the National Assembly has the final vote.

The main political parties in France are the Socialist Party and the Union for a Popular Movement.

Climate and weather

In general, the climate of France can be divided into three main climatic zones:

• Oceanic climate in the west;
• Mediterranean climate in the south and southeast (Provence, Languedoc-Roussillon and Corsica);
• Continental climate in the central regions of the country and in the east.

In the south-east of France in the Alps the climate is alpine. Winter in the French mountains, including the Massif Central and the Pyrenees, is cold, often with heavy snowfall.

Average air temperature in Paris:

• January - +3C
• February - +5C
• March - +9C
• April - +10C
• May - +15C
• June - +18C
• July - +19C
• August - +19C
• September - +17C
• October - +13C
• November - +7C
• December - +5C

Seas and oceans

The coast of France is washed in the south by the Mediterranean Sea, and in the west by the Atlantic Ocean.

Average temperature of the Mediterranean Sea near Nice (Côte d'Azur):

• January - +13C
• February - +12C
• March - +13C
• April - +14C
• May - +17C
• June - +20C
• July - +22C
• August - +22C
• September - +21C
• October - +18C
• November - +15C
• December - +14C

Rivers and lakes

In the European territory of France there are 119 rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. The largest rivers in France are the Seine, Loire, Garron and Rhone.

The lakes in France are not very large, but they are very beautiful. The largest of them are Bourget, Aigblett and Annecy.

History of France

People appeared on the territory of modern France 10 thousand years ago. Around the 6th century BC. Colonies of Phoenicians and ancient Greeks were formed on the Mediterranean coast of France. Later, the territory of modern France was settled by Celtic tribes. In the era of Ancient Rome, France was called Gaul. In the middle of the 1st century BC. Most of Gaul was conquered by Gaius Julius Caesar.

In the 5th century AD France was invaded by Frankish tribes, who formed their own empire in the 8th century (this was done by Charlemagne, who took the title of Holy Roman Emperor).

In the 10th century, Vikings began to raid the coast of France and gradually colonized Normandy. Since 987, the kings of France were people from the Capetian family, and since 1328, the Valois.

During the Middle Ages, France waged constant wars with its neighbors, gradually expanding its territory. So, in 1337 the so-called The “Hundred Years' War” between France and England, as a result of which the British were expelled from French lands (only the port of Calais remained with them). During the Hundred Years' War, Joan of Arc became famous.

In the middle of the 16th century in France, under the influence of the Protestant Reformation, the teachings of John Calvin began to spread, which led to many years of civil war. The Edict of Nantes in 1598 gave French Protestants (Huguenots) equal rights with Catholics.

As a result of the Great French Revolution (1789-94), the monarchy was abolished in France and a republic was proclaimed. However, after some time, the dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte was established in France. Under Napoleon Bonaparte, France extended its power over almost all European countries. In 1815, after the defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon Bonaparte's empire was liquidated.

In the 20th century, France took an active part in all two world wars, suffering millions of human losses in them. After the Second World War in 1946-1958, the so-called The "Fourth Republic", and in 1958, after the adoption of the Constitution, the "Fifth Republic" was established.

Now France is a member of the NATO military bloc and is a member of the EU.

Culture

The history of France goes back many hundreds of years, and therefore the French, of course, have a very rich culture, which has had a great influence on the cultures of other peoples.

Thanks to France, the world received a large number of brilliant writers, artists, philosophers and scientists:

• Literature (Pierre Beaumarchais, Alexandre Dumas the Father, Anatole France, Victor Hugo, Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, Anne Golon, Jules Verne, and Georges Simenon);
• Art (Jean-Antoine Watteau, Delacroix, Degas, and Jean Paul Cézanne);
• Philosophy (René Descartes, Blaise Pascal, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Comte, Henri Bergson, Albert Camus, Jean-Paul Sartre).

Every year in France many different folk festivals and carnivals are celebrated. The most popular carnival takes place annually in March, welcoming spring.

French cuisine

The French have always been proud of their cooking skills. Now French cuisine is considered the most diverse and refined in the world.

Each region of France has its own special culinary tradition. So, in the north-west of the country in Brittany, pancakes with cider are popular, in Alsace (near the border with Germany) they often make “la choucroute” (stewed cabbage with pieces of sausage), in the Loire Valley they eat a special fish dish called Lotte (monk fish) , which is found only in the Loire River. On the French coast, seafood dishes (mussels, clams, oysters, shrimp, squid) are very popular.

In some regions of France they prepare exotic dishes for you and me - snails in garlic and butter, as well as frog legs in sauce.

France is famous for its wines. Winemaking in France dates back to approximately the 6th century BC. In the Middle Ages, French wines from Burgundy, Champagne and Bordeaux became known throughout Europe. Now wine is produced in almost every region of France.

Sights of France

A person who has visited France can probably talk for hours about its attractions, because this country has a very rich history. The top ten best attractions in France, in our opinion, include the following:

Cities and resorts

The largest French cities are Paris, Marseille, Toulouse, Lyon, Bordeaux, and Lille.

France is washed by the waters of the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The total coastline of mainland France is 3,427 kilometers. On the southeastern coast of France (this is the Mediterranean Sea) there is the famous “Côte d'Azur” (French Riviera), where tourists can relax at popular beach resorts. The most famous of them are Nice, Cannes, Saint-Tropez, Hyères, Ile du Levant, and Saint-Jean-Cap-Ferrat.

In winter, hundreds of thousands of tourists come to France to ski at local ski resorts.

Top 10 best French ski resorts:

1. Brides-les-Bains
2. Argentière
3. Les Arcs
4. Meribel
5. Tignes
6. Saint Martin de Belleville
7. Paradiski
8. Courchevel
9. Alpe d'Huez (Alpe d'Huez)
10. Val d"Isère (Val d"Isere)

Souvenirs/shopping

Tourists from France usually bring various souvenirs with images of the Eiffel Tower. However, we advise you to buy scarves and ties, chocolate, coffee cups, lavender tea (it is made in Provence), Dijon mustard (there are 50 types of this mustard), French perfume, French wine in France.

Office hours