At the end of the ninth century A.D. e. scattered tribes of the Eastern Slavs are united in a powerful union, which will later be called Kievan Rus. The ancient state embraced the vast territories of the central and southern parts of Europe, united completely different culturally peoples.
Name
The question of the history of the emergence of Russian statehood has been causing a lot of controversy among historians and archaeologists for decades. For a very long time, the manuscript "The Tale of Bygone Years", one of the main documented sources of information about this period, was considered a falsification, and therefore the data on when and how Kievan Rus appeared were called into question. The formation of a single center among the Eastern Slavs is presumably dated to the eleventh century.
The state of the Russians received the usual name for us only in the 20th century, when the textbook studies of Soviet scientists were published. They specified that this concept does not include a separate region of modern Ukraine, but the entire empire of the Rurikids, located on a vast territory. The Old Russian state is called conditionally, for a more convenient distinction between the periods before the Mongol invasion and after.
Prerequisites for the emergence of statehood
In the era of the early Middle Ages, almost throughout Europe, there was a tendency to unite disparate tribes and principalities. This was due to the aggressive campaigns of some king or knight, as well as the creation of alliances of wealthy families. The prerequisites for the formation of Kievan Rus were different and had their own specifics.
By the end of the IX, several large tribes, such as the Krivichi, Polyany, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Vyatichi, Northerners, Radimichi, gradually united into one principality. The main reasons for this process were the following factors:
- All unions rallied to confront common enemies - the steppe nomads, who often made devastating raids on cities and villages.
- And also these tribes were united by a common geographical location, they all lived near the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks."
- The first Kyiv princes known to us - Askold, Dir, and later Oleg, Vladimir and Yaroslav made aggressive campaigns in the North and South-East of Europe in order to establish their rule and impose tribute on the local population.
Thus, the formation of Kievan Rus gradually took place. It is difficult to talk briefly about this period, many events and bloody battles preceded the final consolidation of power in one center, under the leadership of the all-powerful prince. From the very beginning, the Russian state was formed as a multi-ethnic one, the peoples differed in terms of beliefs, way of life and culture.
"Norman" and "anti-Norman" theory
In historiography, the question of who and how created the state called Kievan Rus has not yet been finally resolved. For many decades, the formation of a single center among the Slavs was associated with the arrival of leaders from outside - the Varangians or Normans, whom the locals themselves called on these lands.
The theory has many shortcomings, the main reliable source of its confirmation is the mention of a certain legend of the chroniclers of the Tale of Bygone Years about the arrival of princes from the Varangians and the establishment of statehood by them, there is still no archaeological or historical evidence. This interpretation was adhered to by the German scientists G. Miller and I. Bayer.
The theory of the formation of Kievan Rus by foreign princes was disputed by M. Lomonosov, he and his followers believed that statehood in this territory arose through the gradual establishment of the power of one center over others, and was not introduced from outside. Until now, scientists have not come to a consensus, and this issue has long been politicized and is used as a lever of pressure on the perception of Russian history.
First princes
Whatever disagreements exist regarding the issue of the origin of statehood, official history speaks of the arrival of three brothers in the Slavic lands - Sinius, Truvor and Rurik. The first two soon died, and Rurik became the sole ruler of the then large cities of Ladoga, Izborsk and Beloozero. After his death, his son Igor, due to his infancy, could not take control, so Prince Oleg became regent under the heir.
It is with his name that the formation of the eastern state of Kievan Rus is associated, at the end of the ninth century he made a trip to the capital city and declared these lands "the cradle of the Russian land." Oleg showed himself not only as a strong leader and a great conqueror, but also as a good manager. In each city, he created a special system of subordination, legal proceedings and rules for collecting taxes.
Several destructive campaigns against the Greek lands, which were made by Oleg and his predecessor Igor, helped to strengthen the authority of Rus' as a strong and independent state, and also led to the establishment of a wider and more profitable trade with Byzantium.
Prince Vladimir
Igor's son Svyatoslav continued aggressive campaigns to remote territories, annexed the Crimea, the Taman Peninsula to his possessions, returned the cities previously conquered by the Khazars. However, the management of such economically and culturally diverse territories was very difficult to carry out from Kyiv. Therefore, Svyatoslav carried out an important administrative reform, placing his sons in charge of all major cities.
The formation and development of Kievan Rus was successfully continued by his illegitimate son Vladimir, this man became an outstanding figure in national history, it was during his reign that Russian statehood was finally formed, and a new religion was adopted - Christianity. He continued the consolidation of all the lands under his control, removing the sole rulers and appointing his sons as princes.
Rise of the State
Vladimir is often called the first Russian reformer, during his reign he created a clear system of administrative division and subordination, and also established a single rule for collecting taxes. In addition, he reorganized the judiciary, now the governors in each region made the law on his behalf. In the first period of his reign, Vladimir devoted much effort to fighting the raids of the steppe nomads and strengthening the country's borders.
It was during his reign that Kievan Rus was finally formed. The formation of a new state is impossible without the establishment of a single religion and worldview among the people, so Vladimir, being a smart strategist, decides to convert to Orthodoxy. Thanks to rapprochement with the strong and enlightened Byzantium, the state very soon becomes the cultural center of Europe. Thanks to the Christian faith, the authority of the head of the country is strengthened, as well as schools are opened, monasteries are built and books are printed.
internecine wars, disintegration
Initially, the system of government in Rus' was formed on the basis of tribal traditions of inheritance - from father to son. Under Vladimir, and then Yaroslav, such a custom played a key role in uniting disparate lands, the prince appointed his sons as governors in different cities, thereby maintaining a single government. But already in the 17th century, the grandchildren of Vladimir Monomakh were mired in internecine wars among themselves.
The centralized state, created with such zeal over the course of two hundred years, soon broke up into many specific principalities. The absence of a strong leader and harmony between the children of Mstislav Vladimirovich led to the fact that the once powerful country was completely unprotected against the forces of the devastating hordes of Batu.
Way of life
By the time of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars in Rus', there were about three hundred cities, although the majority of the population lived in the countryside, where they were engaged in cultivating the land and raising livestock. The formation of the state of the Eastern Slavs of Kievan Rus contributed to the massive construction and strengthening of settlements, part of the taxes went both to create infrastructure and to build powerful defensive systems. To establish Christianity among the population, churches and monasteries were built in every city.
The class division in Kievan Rus took shape over a long period of time. One of the first is a group of leaders, usually it consisted of representatives of a separate family, social inequality between the leaders and the rest of the population was striking. Gradually, the future feudal nobility is formed from the princely squad. Despite the active slave trade with Byzantium and other eastern countries, there were not so many slaves in Ancient Rus'. Among the subject people, historians single out smerds, who obey the will of the prince, and serfs, who have practically no rights.
Economy
The formation of the monetary system in Ancient Rus' takes place in the first half of the 9th century and is associated with the beginning of active trade with the major states of Europe and the East. For a long time, coins minted in the centers of the Caliphate or in Western Europe were used on the territory of the country; the Slavic princes had neither the experience nor the necessary raw materials to make their own banknotes.
The formation of the state of Kievan Rus became possible largely due to the establishment of economic ties with Germany, Byzantium, and Poland. Russian princes have always prioritized protecting the interests of merchants abroad. The traditional goods of trade in Rus' were furs, honey, wax, linen, silver, jewelry, locks, weapons and much more. The message took place along the famous route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", when the ships rose along the Dnieper River to the Black Sea, as well as along the Volga route through Ladoga to the Caspian Sea.
Meaning
The social and cultural processes that took place during the formation and flourishing of Kievan Rus became the basis for the formation of the Russian nationality. With the adoption of Christianity, the country changed its appearance forever, for the next centuries Orthodoxy will become a unifying factor for all peoples living in this territory, despite the fact that pagan customs and rituals of our ancestors still remain in the culture and way of life.
A huge influence on Russian literature and the worldview of people was exerted by folklore, for which Kievan Rus was famous. The formation of a single center contributed to the emergence of common legends and fairy tales glorifying the great princes and their exploits.
With the adoption of Christianity in Rus', the widespread construction of monumental stone structures begins. Some architectural monuments have survived to this day, for example, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, which dates back to the 19th century. Of no less historical value are examples of paintings by ancient masters, which remained in the form of frescoes and mosaics in Orthodox churches and churches.
During the VI-IX centuries. among the Eastern Slavs there was a process of class formation and the creation of the prerequisites for feudalism. The territory on which the ancient Russian statehood began to take shape was located at the intersection of the paths along which the migration of peoples and tribes took place, nomadic routes ran. The southern Russian steppes were the scene of an endless struggle of moving tribes and peoples. Often Slavic tribes attacked the border regions of the Byzantine Empire.
In the 7th century in the steppes between the Lower Volga, the Don and the North Caucasus, a Khazar state was formed. Slavic tribes in the regions of the Lower Don and Azov fell under his dominion, retaining, however, a certain autonomy. The territory of the Khazar kingdom extended to the Dnieper and the Black Sea. At the beginning of the 8th century the Arabs inflicted a crushing defeat on the Khazars, and deeply invaded the north through the North Caucasus, reaching the Don. A large number of Slavs - allies of the Khazars - were taken prisoner.
From the north, the Varangians (Normans, Vikings) penetrate into the Russian lands. At the beginning of the 8th century they settle around Yaroslavl, Rostov and Suzdal, establishing control over the territory from Novgorod to Smolensk. Part of the northern colonists penetrates into southern Russia, where they mix with the Rus, taking their name. In Tmutarakan, the capital of the Russian-Varangian Khaganate was formed, which ousted the Khazar rulers. In their struggle, the opponents turned to the Emperor of Constantinople for an alliance.
In such a complex ooetanovka, the consolidation of the Slavic tribes into political unions took place, which became the embryo of the formation of a single East Slavic statehood.
In the ninth century as a result of the centuries-old development of the East Slavic society, the early feudal state of Rus was formed with its center in Kyiv. Gradually, all the East Slavic tribes united in Kievan Rus.
The theme of the history of Kievan Rus considered in the work is not only interesting, but also very relevant. Recent years have passed under the sign of changes in many areas of Russian life. The way of life of many people has changed, the system of life values has changed. Knowledge of the history of Russia, the spiritual traditions of the Russian people, is very important for raising the national consciousness of Russians. A sign of the revival of the nation is the ever-increasing interest in the historical past of the Russian people, in its spiritual values.
FORMATION OF THE OLD RUSSIAN STATE IN THE IX CENTURY
The time from the 6th to the 9th centuries is still the last stage of the primitive communal system, the time of the formation of classes and the imperceptible, at first glance, but steady growth of the prerequisites of feudalism. The most valuable monument containing information about the beginning of the Russian state is the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years, where did the Russian land come from, and who in Kiev began to reign first and where did the Russian land come from," compiled by the Kiev monk Nestor around 1113.
Starting his story, like all medieval historians, with the Flood, Nestor tells about the settlement of Western and Eastern Slavs in Europe in antiquity. He divides the East Slavic tribes into two groups, the level of development of which, according to his description, was not the same. Some of them lived, in his words, in a “bestial way”, preserving the features of the tribal system: blood feud, remnants of matriarchy, the absence of marriage prohibitions, “kidnapping” (kidnapping) of wives, etc. Nestor contrasts these tribes with glades, in whose land Kiev was built. Glades are "smart men", they have already established a patriarchal monogamous family and, obviously, blood feuds have been outlived (they are "distinguished by a meek and quiet disposition").
Next, Nestor tells how the city of Kyiv was created. Prince Kiy, who reigned there, according to Nestor's story, came to Constantinople to visit the emperor of Byzantium, who received him with great honors. Returning from Constantinople, Kiy built a city on the banks of the Danube, intending to settle here for a long time. But the locals were hostile to him, and Kiy returned to the banks of the Dnieper.
Nestor considered the formation of the Polyan principality in the Middle Dnieper region to be the first historical event on the path to the creation of the Old Russian states. The legend about Kii and his two brothers spread far to the south, and was even brought to Armenia.
Byzantine writers of the 6th century paint the same picture. During the reign of Justinian, huge masses of Slavs advanced to the northern borders of the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine historians colorfully describe the invasion of the empire by Slavic troops, who took away prisoners and rich booty, and the settlement of the empire by Slavic colonists. The appearance on the territory of Byzantium of the Slavs, who dominated communal relations, contributed to the eradication of the slave-owning order here and the development of Byzantium along the path from the slave-owning system to feudalism.
The successes of the Slavs in the fight against powerful Byzantium testify to the relatively high level of development of Slavic society for that time: material prerequisites for equipping significant military expeditions had already appeared, and the system of military democracy made it possible to unite large masses of Slavs. Distant campaigns contributed to the strengthening of the power of the princes in the indigenous Slavic lands, where tribal principalities were created.
Archaeological data fully confirm the words of Nestor that the core of the future Kievan Rus began to take shape on the banks of the Dnieper when the Slavic princes made trips to Byzantium and the Danube, in the times preceding the attacks of the Khazars (VII century).
The creation of a significant tribal union in the southern forest-steppe regions facilitated the advancement of the Slavic colonists not only in the southwest (to the Balkans), but also in the southeast direction. True, the steppes were occupied by various nomads: Bulgarians, Avars, Khazars, but the Slavs of the Middle Dnieper (Russian land) apparently managed to protect their possessions from their invasions and penetrate deep into the fertile black earth steppes. In the VII-IX centuries. Slavs also lived in the eastern part of the Khazar lands, somewhere in the Azov region, participated together with the Khazars in military campaigns, were hired to serve the kagan (Khazar ruler). In the south, the Slavs lived, apparently, as islands among other tribes, gradually assimilating them, but at the same time perceiving elements of their culture.
During the VI-IX centuries. productive forces were growing, tribal institutions were changing, and the process of class formation was going on. As the most important phenomena in the life of the Eastern Slavs during the VI-IX centuries. it should be noted the development of arable farming and the development of handicrafts; the disintegration of the tribal community as a labor collective and the separation of individual peasant farms from it, forming a neighboring community; the growth of private land ownership and the formation of classes; the transformation of the tribal army with its defensive functions into a squad that dominates the tribesmen; capture by princes and nobility of tribal land in personal hereditary property.
By the 9th century everywhere on the territory of the settlement of the Eastern Slavs, a significant area of arable land cleared from the forest was formed, testifying to the further development of productive forces under feudalism. An association of small tribal communities, which is characterized by a certain unity of culture, was an ancient Slavic tribe. Each of these tribes gathered a national assembly (veche). The power of the tribal princes gradually increased. The development of intertribal ties, defensive and offensive alliances, the organization of joint campaigns and, finally, the subordination of weaker neighbors by strong tribes - all this led to the enlargement of the tribes, to their unification into larger groups.
Describing the time when the transition from tribal relations to the state took place, Nestor notes that in various East Slavic regions there were "their reigns." This is also confirmed by archeological data.
The formation of an early feudal state, which gradually subjugated all the East Slavic tribes, became possible only when the differences between the south and north were somewhat smoothed out in terms of agricultural conditions, when there was a sufficient amount of plowed land in the north and the need for hard collective labor for cutting and uprooting of the forest has decreased significantly. As a result, the peasant family emerged as a new production team from the patriarchal community.
The decomposition of the primitive communal system among the Eastern Slavs took place at a time when the slave-owning system had already outlived itself on a world-historical scale. In the process of class formation, Rus' came to feudalism, bypassing the slaveholding formation.
In the IX-X centuries. antagonistic classes of feudal society are formed. The number of combatants is increasing everywhere, their differentiation is intensifying, there is a separation from their midst of the nobility - boyars and princes.
Important in the history of the emergence of feudalism is the question of the time of the appearance of cities in Rus'. Under the conditions of the tribal system, there were certain centers where tribal councils met, a prince was chosen, trade was carried out, fortune-telling was carried out, court cases were decided, sacrifices were made to the gods and the most important dates of the year were celebrated. Sometimes such a center became the focus of the most important types of production. Most of these ancient centers later turned into medieval cities.
In the IX-X centuries. the feudal lords created a number of new cities, which served both for the purposes of defense against nomads and for the purposes of domination over the enslaved population. Handicraft production was also concentrated in the cities. The old name "city", "city", denoting a fortification, began to be applied to a real feudal city with a citadel-kremlin (fortress) in the center and an extensive craft and trading settlement.
With all the gradualness and slowness of the process of feudalization, one can still point out a certain line, starting from which there are grounds for talking about feudal relations in Rus'. This line is the 9th century, when a feudal state was already formed among the Eastern Slavs.
The lands of the East Slavic tribes united into a single state were called Rus. The arguments of the "Norman" historians who tried to declare the founders of the Old Russian state the Normans, who were then called Varangians in Rus', are unconvincing. These historians stated that under Russia the chronicles meant the Varangians. But as has already been shown, the prerequisites for the formation of states among the Slavs developed over many centuries and by the 9th century. gave a noticeable result not only in the West Slavic lands, where the Normans never penetrated and where the Great Moravian state arose, but also in the East Slavic lands (in Kievan Rus), where the Normans appeared, robbed, destroyed representatives of local princely dynasties and sometimes became princes themselves. Obviously, the Normans could neither assist nor seriously interfere with the process of feudalization. The name Rus began to be used in sources in relation to part of the Slavs 300 years before the appearance of the Varangians.
For the first time, the mention of the people of Ros is found in the middle of the 6th century, when information about it had already reached Syria. The glades, called, according to the chronicler, Rus, become the basis of the future Old Russian people, and their land - the core of the territory of the future state - Kievan Rus.
Among the news belonging to Nestor, one passage has survived, which describes Rus' before the appearance of the Varangians there. “These are the Slavic regions,” Nestor writes, “that are part of Rus' - the glades, the Drevlyans, the Dregovichi, the Polochans, the Novgorod Slovenes, the northerners ...”2. This list includes only half of the East Slavic regions. The composition of Rus', therefore, at that time did not yet include the Krivichi, Radimichi, Vyatichi, Croats, Ulichi and Tivertsy. At the center of the new state formation was the Glade tribe. The Old Russian state became a kind of federation of tribes, in its form it was an early feudal monarchy
ANCIENT Rus' IN THE END OF THE IX - BEGINNING OF THE XII CENTURIES
In the second half of the ninth century Novgorod prince Oleg united in his hands the power over Kiev and Novgorod. The chronicle dates this event to 882. The formation of the early feudal Old Russian state (Kievan Rus) as a result of the emergence of antagonistic classes was a turning point in the history of the Eastern Slavs.
The process of unification of the East Slavic lands as part of the Old Russian state was complex. In a number of lands, the Kyiv princes met with serious resistance from local feudal and tribal princes and their "husbands". This resistance was crushed by force of arms. In the reign of Oleg (late IX - early X century), a constant tribute was already levied from Novgorod and from the lands of the North Russian (Novgorod or Ilmen Slavs), Western Russian (Krivichi) and northeastern. Prince Igor of Kiev (beginning of the 10th century), as a result of a stubborn struggle, subjugated the lands of the streets and Tivertsy. Thus, the border of Kievan Rus was advanced beyond the Dniester. A long struggle continued with the population of the Drevlyane land. Igor increased the amount of tribute levied from the Drevlyans. During one of Igor's campaigns in the Drevlyane land, when he decided to collect a double tribute, the Drevlyans defeated the prince's squad and killed Igor. During the reign of Olga (945-969), Igor's wife, the land of the Drevlyans was finally subordinated to Kyiv.
The territorial growth and strengthening of Rus' continued under Svyatoslav Igorevich (969-972) and Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980-1015). The composition of the Old Russian state included the lands of the Vyatichi. The power of Rus' spread to the North Caucasus. The territory of the Old Russian state also expanded to the west, including the cities of Cherven and Carpathian Rus.
With the formation of the early feudal state, more favorable conditions were created for maintaining the security of the country and its economic growth. But the strengthening of this state was connected with the development of feudal property and the further enslavement of the previously free peasantry.
The supreme power in the Old Russian state belonged to the great Kievan prince. At the princely court there lived a squad, divided into "senior" and "junior". The boyars from the prince's combat comrades-in-arms turn into landowners, his vassals, and estates. In the XI-XII centuries. there is a registration of the boyars as a special estate and the consolidation of its legal status. Vassalage is formed as a system of relations with the prince-suzerain; its characteristic features are the specialization of the vassal service, the contractual nature of relations and the economic independence of the vassal4.
The princely combatants took part in the administration of the state. So, Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, together with the boyars, discussed the issue of introducing Christianity, measures to combat "robbery" and decided other matters. In some parts of Rus', their own princes ruled. But the great Kiev prince sought to replace the local rulers with his proteges.
The state helped to strengthen the rule of the feudal lords in Rus'. The apparatus of power ensured the flow of tribute, collected in money and in kind. The working population also performed a number of other duties - military, underwater, participated in the construction of fortresses, roads, bridges, etc. Individual princely combatants received entire regions in control with the right to collect tribute.
In the middle of the X century. under Princess Olga, the sizes of duties (tributes and quitrents) were determined and temporary and permanent camps and churchyards were established in which tribute was collected.
The norms of customary law developed among the Slavs from ancient times. With the emergence and development of class society and the state, along with customary law and gradually replacing it, written laws appeared and developed to protect the interests of the feudal lords. Already in Oleg's treaty with Byzantium (911), "Russian law" is mentioned. The collection of written laws is the "Russian Truth" of the so-called "Short Edition" (end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century). In its composition, the “Ancient Truth” was preserved, apparently written down at the beginning of the 11th century, but reflecting some norms of customary law. It also speaks of the survivals of primitive communal relations, for example, blood feuds. The law considers cases of replacing revenge with a fine in favor of the relatives of the victim (subsequently in favor of the state).
The armed forces of the Old Russian state consisted of the retinue of the Grand Duke, the retinues, which were brought by the princes and boyars subordinate to him, and the people's militia (wars). The number of troops with which the princes went on campaigns sometimes reached 60-80 thousand. An important role in the armed forces continued to be played by the foot militia. In Rus', detachments of mercenaries were also used - nomads of the steppes (Pechenegs), as well as Polovtsy, Hungarians, Lithuanians, Czechs, Poles, Norman Varangians, but their role in the armed forces was insignificant. The ancient Russian fleet consisted of ships hollowed out of trees and sheathed with boards along the sides. Russian ships sailed the Black, Azov, Caspian and Baltic seas.
The foreign policy of the Old Russian state expressed the interests of the growing class of feudal lords, who expanded their possessions, political influence and trade relations. In an effort to conquer individual East Slavic lands, the Kyiv princes came into conflict with the Khazars. The advance to the Danube, the desire to master the trade route along the Black Sea and the Crimean coast led to the struggle of the Russian princes with Byzantium, which tried to limit the influence of Rus' in the Black Sea region. In 907 Prince Oleg organized a campaign by sea against Constantinople. The Byzantines were forced to ask the Russians to make peace and pay an indemnity. According to the peace treaty of 911. Rus' received the right of duty-free trade in Constantinople.
The Kyiv princes undertook campaigns to more distant lands - beyond the Caucasus Range, to the western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea (campaigns of 880, 909, 910, 913-914). The expansion of the territory of the Kyiv state began to be carried out especially actively under the reign of the son of Princess Olga, Svyatoslav (campaigns of Svyatoslav - 964-972). He dealt the first blow to the Khazar empire. Their main cities on the Don and Volga were captured. Svyatoslav even planned to settle in this region, becoming the successor to the empire he had destroyed6.
Then the Russian squads marched to the Danube, where they captured the city of Pereyaslavets (formerly owned by the Bulgarians), which Svyatoslav decided to make his capital. Such political ambitions show that the princes of Kyiv did not yet associate the idea of the political center of their empire with Kiev.
The danger that came from the East - the invasion of the Pechenegs, forced the Kyiv princes to pay more attention to the internal structure of their own state.
ACCEPTANCE OF CHRISTIANITY IN Rus'
At the end of the tenth century Christianity was officially introduced in Rus'. The development of feudal relations prepared for the replacement of pagan cults by a new religion.
Eastern Slavs deified the forces of nature. Among the gods revered by them, the first place was occupied by Perun - the god of thunder and lightning. Dazhd-bog was the god of the sun and fertility, Stribog was the god of thunder and bad weather. Volos was considered the god of wealth and trade, the creator of all human culture - the blacksmith god Svarog.
Christianity began to penetrate early into Rus' among the nobility. Even in the IX century. Patriarch Photius of Constantinople noted that Rus' had changed "pagan superstition" to "Christian faith"7. Christians were among Igor's warriors. Princess Olga converted to Christianity.
Vladimir Svyatoslavich, having been baptized in 988 and appreciating the political role of Christianity, decided to make it the state religion in Rus'. The adoption of Christianity by Russia took place in a difficult foreign policy situation. In the 80s of the X century. the Byzantine government turned to the prince of Kyiv with a request for military assistance to suppress uprisings in subject lands. In response, Vladimir demanded an alliance with Russia from Byzantium, offering to seal it with his marriage to Anna, the sister of Emperor Basil II. The Byzantine government was forced to agree to this. After the marriage of Vladimir and Anna, Christianity was officially recognized as the religion of the Old Russian state.
Church institutions in Rus' received large land grants and tithes from state revenues. During the 11th century Bishoprics were founded in Yuryev and Belgorod (in the land of Kyiv), Novgorod, Rostov, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl-Yuzhny, Vladimir-Volynsky, Polotsk and Turov. Several large monasteries arose in Kyiv.
The people met with hostility the new faith and its ministers. Christianity was forcibly planted, and the Christianization of the country dragged on for several centuries. Pre-Christian (“pagan”) cults continued to live among the people for a long time.
The introduction of Christianity was an advance over paganism. Together with Christianity, the Russians received some elements of a higher Byzantine culture, joined, like other European peoples, to the heritage of antiquity. The introduction of a new religion increased the international significance of ancient Rus'.
DEVELOPMENT OF FEUDAL RELATIONS IN Rus'
Time from the end of the X to the beginning of the XII century. is an important stage in the development of feudal relations in Rus'. This time is characterized by the gradual victory of the feudal mode of production over a large area of the country.
The agriculture of Rus' was dominated by sustainable field farming. Cattle breeding developed more slowly than agriculture. Despite a relative increase in agricultural production, harvests were low. Shortage and famine were frequent occurrences, undermining the Kresgyap economy and contributing to the enslavement of the peasants. Hunting, fishing, and beekeeping remained of great importance in the economy. Furs of squirrels, martens, otters, beavers, sables, foxes, as well as honey and wax went to the foreign market. The best hunting and fishing areas, forests with side lands were seized by feudal lords.
In the 11th and early 12th centuries part of the land was exploited by the state by collecting tribute from the population, part of the land area was in the hands of individual feudal lords as estates that could be inherited (later they became known as estates), and possessions received from the princes in temporary conditional holding.
The ruling class of feudal lords was formed from local princes and boyars, who fell into dependence on Kiev, and from the husbands (combatants) of the Kiev princes, who received land, “tortured” by them and the princes, into administration, possession or patrimony. The Kievan Grand Dukes themselves had large land holdings. The distribution of land by the princes to combatants, while strengthening feudal production relations, was at the same time one of the means used by the state to subjugate the local population to its power.
Land property was protected by law. The growth of boyar and ecclesiastical landownership was closely connected with the development of immunity. The land, which used to be peasant property, fell into the ownership of the feudal lord “with tribute, virs and sales”, that is, with the right to collect taxes and court fines from the population for murder and other crimes, and, consequently, with the right to court.
With the transfer of land into the ownership of individual feudal lords, the peasants fell into dependence on them in various ways. Some peasants, deprived of the means of production, were enslaved by the landowners, using their need for tools, implements, seeds, etc. Other peasants, who were sitting on land subject to tribute, who owned their tools of production, were forced by the state to transfer their land under the patrimonial power of the feudal lords. With the expansion of estates and the enslavement of smerds, the term servants, which previously denoted slaves, began to spread to the entire mass of the peasantry dependent on the landowner.
Peasants who fell into bondage to the feudal lord, legally formalized by a special agreement - nearby, were called purchases. They received from the landowner a plot of land and a loan, which they worked out in the feudal lord's household with the master's inventory. For escaping from the master, the zakuns turned into serfs - slaves deprived of any rights. Labor rent - corvee, field and castle (construction of fortifications, bridges, roads, etc.), was combined with natural quitrent.
The forms of social protest of the masses against the feudal system were varied: from fleeing from their owner to armed “robbery”, from violating the boundaries of feudal estates, setting fire to the side trees belonging to the princes, to open rebellion. The peasants fought against the feudal lords and with weapons in their hands. Under Vladimir Svyatoslavich, “robbery” (as the armed uprisings of the peasants were often called at that time) became a common phenomenon. In 996, Vladimir, on the advice of the clergy, decided to apply the death penalty to the "robbers", but then, having strengthened the apparatus of power and, needing new sources of income to support the squad, he replaced the execution with a fine - vira. The princes paid even more attention to the struggle against popular movements in the 11th century.
At the beginning of the XII century. further development of the craft took place. In the countryside, under the dominance of natural economy, the manufacture of clothing, footwear, utensils, agricultural implements, etc., was a domestic production that had not yet separated from agriculture. With the development of the feudal system, part of the communal artisans became dependent on the feudal lords, others left the village and went under the walls of princely castles and fortresses, where handicraft settlements were created. The possibility of a break between the artisan and the countryside was due to the development of agriculture, which was able to provide the urban population with food, and the beginning of the separation of handicrafts from agriculture.
Cities became centers for the development of handicrafts. In them by the XII century. There were over 60 handicraft specialties. Russian artisans of the XI-XII centuries. produced more than 150 types of iron and steel products, their products played an important role in the development of trade relations between the city and the countryside. Old Russian jewelers knew the art of minting non-ferrous metals. In craft workshops, tools, weapons, household items, and jewelry were made.
The foreign trade of Rus' was more developed. Russian merchants traded in the possessions of the Arab Caliphate. The Dnieper path connected Rus' with Byzantium. Russian merchants traveled from Kiev to Moravia, the Czech Republic, Poland, South Germany, from Novgorod and Polotsk - along the Baltic Sea to Scandinavia, the Polish Pomerania and further to the west. With the development of handicrafts, the export of handicraft products increased.
Silver bars and foreign coins were used as money. Princes Vladimir Svyatoslavich and his son Yaroslav Vladimirovich issued (albeit in small quantities) minted silver coins. However, foreign trade did not change the natural character of the Russian economy.
With the growth of the social division of labor, cities developed. They arose from fortresses-castles, gradually overgrown with settlements, and from trade and craft settlements, around which fortifications were erected. The city was connected with the nearest rural district, the products of which he lived and the population of which he served with handicrafts. In chronicles of the IX-X centuries. 25 cities are mentioned, in the news of the 11th century -89. The heyday of ancient Russian cities falls on the XI-XII centuries.
Craft and merchant associations arose in the cities, although the guild system did not develop here. In addition to free artisans, patrimonial artisans, who were serfs of princes and boyars, also lived in the cities. The urban nobility was the boyars. The large cities of Rus' (Kyiv, Chernigov, Polotsk, Novgorod, Smolensk, etc.) were administrative, judicial and military centers. At the same time, having grown stronger, the cities contributed to the process of political fragmentation. This was a natural phenomenon in the conditions of the dominance of subsistence farming and the weakness of economic ties between individual lands.
PROBLEMS OF STATE UNITY OF Rus'
The state unity of Rus' was not strong. The development of feudal relations and the strengthening of the power of the feudal lords, as well as the growth of cities as centers of local principalities, led to changes in the political superstructure. In the XI century. the Grand Duke still stood at the head of the state, but the princes and boyars dependent on him acquired large land holdings in different parts of Rus' (in Novgorod, Polotsk, Chernigov, Volhynia, etc.). The princes of individual feudal centers strengthened their own apparatus of power and, relying on local feudal lords, began to regard their reigns as ancestral, that is, hereditary possessions. Economically, they almost did not depend on Kyiv, on the contrary, the Kiev prince was interested in their support. Political dependence on Kyiv weighed heavily on local feudal lords and princes who ruled in certain parts of the country.
After the death of Vladimir in Kyiv, his son Svyatopolk became prince, who killed his brothers Boris and Gleb and began a stubborn struggle with Yaroslav. In this struggle, Svyatopolk used the military assistance of the Polish feudal lords. Then a mass popular movement against the Polish invaders began in the Kyiv land. Yaroslav, supported by Novgorod citizens, defeated Svyatopolk and occupied Kyiv.
During the reign of Yaroslav Vladimirovich, nicknamed the Wise (1019-1054), around 1024, a great uprising of smerds broke out in the northeast, in the Suzdal land. The reason for it was severe hunger. Many participants in the suppressed uprising were imprisoned or executed. However, the movement continued until 1026.
During the reign of Yaroslav, the strengthening and further expansion of the borders of the Old Russian state continued. However, the signs of the feudal fragmentation of the state became more and more distinct.
After the death of Yaroslav, state power passed to his three sons. Seniority belonged to Izyaslav, who owned Kiev, Novgorod and other cities. His co-rulers were Svyatoslav (who ruled in Chernigov and Tmutarakan) and Vsevolod (who reigned in Rostov, Suzdal and Pereyaslavl). In 1068, nomadic Polovtsy attacked Rus'. Russian troops were defeated on the Alta River. Izyaslav and Vsevolod fled to Kyiv. This hastened the anti-feudal uprising in Kyiv, which had long been brewing. The rebels defeated the princely court, released from prison and elevated to the reign of Vseslav of Polotsk, previously (during the inter-princely strife) imprisoned by his brothers. However, he soon left Kyiv, and Izyaslav a few months later, with the help of Polish troops, resorting to deceit, again occupied the city (1069) and committed a bloody massacre.
Urban uprisings were associated with the movement of the peasantry. Since the anti-feudal movements were also directed against the Christian church, the rebellious peasants and townspeople were sometimes led by wise men. In the 70s of the XI century. there was a major popular movement in the Rostov land. Popular movements also took place in other places in Rus'. In Novgorod, for example, the masses of the urban population, led by the Magi, opposed the nobility, headed by a prince and a bishop. Prince Gleb, with the help of military force, dealt with the rebels.
The development of the feudal mode of production inevitably led to the political fragmentation of the country. Class contradictions intensified noticeably. The ruin from exploitation and princely strife was exacerbated by the consequences of crop failures and famine. After the death of Svyatopolk in Kyiv, there was an uprising of the urban population and peasants from the surrounding villages. Frightened, the nobility and the merchants invited Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1113-1125), Prince of Pereyaslavsky, to reign in Kyiv. The new prince was forced to make some concessions in order to suppress the uprising.
Vladimir Monomakh pursued a policy of strengthening the grand ducal power. Owning, in addition to Kiev, Pereyaslavl, Suzdal, Rostov, ruling Novgorod and part of Southwestern Rus', he simultaneously tried to subjugate other lands (Minsk, Volyn, etc.). However, contrary to the policy of Monomakh, the process of fragmentation of Rus', caused by economic reasons, continued. By the second quarter of the XII century. Rus' finally fragmented into many principalities.
CULTURE OF ANCIENT Rus'
The culture of ancient Rus' is the culture of the early feudal society. Oral poetic creativity reflected the life experience of the people, captured in proverbs and sayings, in the rituals of agricultural and family holidays, from which the cult pagan beginning gradually disappeared, the rites turned into folk games. Buffoons - wandering actors, singers and musicians, who came from the people's environment, were the bearers of democratic trends in art. Folk motifs formed the basis of the remarkable song and musical creativity of the "prophetic Boyan", whom the author of "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" calls "the nightingale of the old time."
The growth of national self-consciousness found a particularly vivid expression in the historical epic epic. In it, the people idealized the time of the political unity of Rus', although still very fragile, when the peasants were not yet dependent. In the image of the "peasant son" Ilya Muromets, a fighter for the independence of the motherland, the deep patriotism of the people is embodied. Folk art had an impact on the traditions and legends that developed in the feudal secular and ecclesiastical environment, and helped the formation of ancient Russian literature.
The appearance of writing was of great importance for the development of ancient Russian literature. In Rus', writing arose, apparently, quite early. The news has been preserved that the Slavic enlightener of the 9th century. Konstantin (Cyril) saw in Chersonese books written in "Russian characters". Evidence of the existence of written language among the Eastern Slavs even before the adoption of Christianity is an earthen vessel discovered in one of the Smolensk barrows of the beginning of the 10th century. with an inscription. Significant distribution of writing received after the adoption of Christianity.
Old Russian state Old Russian state
a state in Eastern Europe that arose in the last quarter of the 9th century. as a result of the unification under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty of the two main centers of the Eastern Slavs - Novgorod and Kiev, as well as lands located along the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" (settlements in the area of Staraya Ladoga, Gnezdova, etc.). In 882 Prince Oleg captured Kyiv and made it the capital of the state. In 988-89 Vladimir I Svyatoslavich introduced Christianity as the state religion (see Baptism of Rus'). In the cities (Kyiv, Novgorod, Ladoga, Beloozero, Rostov, Suzdal, Pskov, Polotsk, etc.), handicrafts, trade, and education developed. Relations were established and deepened with the southern and western Slavs, Byzantium, Western and Northern Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. Old Russian princes repulsed the raids of nomads (Pechenegs, Torks, Polovtsians). The reign of Yaroslav the Wise (1019-54) is the period of the greatest prosperity of the state. Public relations were regulated by the Russian Truth and other legal acts. In the second half of the XI century. princely civil strife and raids of the Polovtsy led to a weakening of the state. Attempts to preserve the unity of the ancient Russian state were made by Prince Vladimir II Monomakh (ruled 1113-25) and his son Mstislav (ruled 1125-32). In the second quarter of the XII century. the state entered the final phase of disintegration into independent principalities, the Novgorod and Pskov republics.
OLD RUSSIAN STATEOLD RUSSIAN STATE (Kievan Rus), a state of the 9th - early 12th centuries. in Eastern Europe, which arose in the last quarter of the 9th century. as a result of unification under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty (cm. RURIKOVICH) two main centers of the Eastern Slavs - Novgorod and Kyiv, as well as lands (settlements in the area of Staraya Ladoga, Gnezdov) located along the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks" (cm. THE WAY FROM THE VARANGIANS TO THE GREEKS). During its heyday, the Old Russian state covered the territory from the Taman Peninsula in the south, the Dniester and the upper reaches of the Vistula in the west, to the upper reaches of the Northern Dvina in the north. The formation of the state was preceded by a long period (from the 6th century) of the maturation of its prerequisites in the depths of military democracy. (cm. MILITARY DEMOCRACY). During the existence of the Old Russian state, the East Slavic tribes formed into the Old Russian people.
Socio-political system
Power in Rus' belonged to the prince of Kyiv, who was surrounded by a retinue (cm. DRUZHINA), dependent on him and fed mainly at the expense of his campaigns. Veche also played a certain role (cm. VECHE). The administration of the state was carried out with the help of thousands and sots, that is, on the basis of a military organization. The prince's income came from various sources. In the 10th - early 11th centuries. this is basically "polyudye", "lessons" (tribute), received annually from the field.
In the 11th - early 12th centuries. in connection with the emergence of large landownership with various types of rent, the functions of the prince expanded. Owning his own large domain, the prince was forced to manage a complex economy, appoint posadniks, volostels, tiuns, and manage a numerous administration. He was a military leader, now he had to organize not so much a squad as a militia, led by vassals, to hire foreign troops. Measures to strengthen and protect external borders have become more complicated. The power of the prince was unlimited, but he had to reckon with the opinion of the boyars. The role of the veche declined. The princely court became the administrative center, where all the threads of government converged. Palace officials arose who were in charge of individual branches of government. At the head of the cities was the city patriciate, which was formed in the 11th century. from large local landowners - "elders" and warriors. Noble families played a big role in the history of cities (for example, the family of Jan Vyshatich, Ratibor, Chudin - in Kyiv, Dmitry Zavidich - in Novgorod). Merchants enjoyed great influence in the city. The need to protect goods during transportation led to the emergence of armed merchant guards; among the city militia, merchants occupied the first place. The largest part of the urban population were artisans, both free and dependent. A special place was occupied by the clergy, divided into black (monastic) and white (secular). The head of the Russian Church was usually appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople, the Metropolitan, to whom the bishops were subordinate. Monasteries headed by abbots were subject to bishops and the metropolitan.
The rural population consisted of free communal peasants (their number was decreasing), and already enslaved peasants. There was a group of peasants who were cut off from the community, deprived of the means of production and who were the labor force within the patrimony. The growth of large landownership, the enslavement of free community members and the growth of their exploitation led to an intensification of the class struggle in the 11th-12th centuries. (uprisings in Suzdal in 1024; in Kyiv in 1068-1069; on Beloozero about 1071; in Kyiv in 1113). The uprisings in most cases were disunited, they were attended by pagan sorcerers, who used disgruntled peasants to fight the new religion - Christianity. A particularly strong wave of popular uprisings swept through Rus' in the 1060s-1070s. in connection with the famine and the invasion of the Polovtsians. During these years, a collection of laws "The Truth of the Yaroslavichs" was created, a number of articles of which provided for punishment for the murder of employees of the patrimony. Public relations were regulated by Russian Truth (cm. RUSSIAN PRAVDA (code of law)) and other legal acts.
Political history
The course of historical events in the Old Russian state is known from the annals (cm. CHRONICLES) compiled in Kyiv and Novgorod by monks. According to The Tale of Bygone Years (cm. THE TALE OF TIME YEARS)”, the first prince of Kyiv was the legendary Kiy. The dating of the facts begins with 852 AD. e. The chronicle includes a legend about the calling of the Varangians (862) headed by Rurik, which became in the 18th century. the basis of the Norman theory of the creation of the Old Russian state by the Vikings. Two associates of Rurik - Askold and Dir moved to Tsargrad along the Dnieper, subjugating Kyiv along the way. After the death of Rurik, power in Novgorod passed to the Varangian Oleg (d. 912), who, having dealt with Askold and Dir, captured Kyiv (882), and in 883-885. conquered the Drevlyans, northerners, Radimichi and in 907 and 911. made campaigns against Byzantium.
Oleg's successor Prince Igor continued his active foreign policy. In 913, through Itil, he made a trip to the western coast of the Caspian Sea, twice (941, 944) attacked Byzantium. Tribute demands from the Drevlyans caused their uprising and the murder of Igor (945). His wife Olga was one of the first in Rus' to adopt Christianity, streamlined local government and established tribute standards (“lessons”). The son of Igor and Olga, Svyatoslav Igorevich (ruled 964-972), ensured the freedom of trade routes to the east, through the lands of the Volga Bulgars and the Khazars, and strengthened the international position of Rus'. Rus' under Svyatoslav settled on the Black Sea and on the Danube (Tmutarakan, Belgorod, Pereyaslavets on the Danube), but after an unsuccessful war with Byzantium, Svyatoslav was forced to abandon his conquests in the Balkans. Upon returning to Rus', he was killed by the Pechenegs.
Svyatoslav was succeeded by his son Yaropolk, who killed a competitor - Oleg's brother, the Drevlyansk prince (977). The younger brother of Yaropolk, Vladimir Svyatoslavich, with the help of the Varangians, captured Kiev. Yaropolk was killed, and Vladimir became the Grand Duke (reigned 980-1015). The need to replace the old ideology of the tribal system with the ideology of the nascent state prompted Vladimir to introduce in Rus' in 988-989. Christianity in the form of Byzantine Orthodoxy. The first to accept the Christian religion were the social elites, the masses of the people held on to pagan beliefs for a long time. The reign of Vladimir accounts for the heyday of the Old Russian state, whose lands stretched from the Baltic and the Carpathians to the Black Sea steppes. After the death of Vladimir (1015), a strife arose between his sons, in which two of them were killed - Boris and Gleb, who were canonized by the church. Svyatopolk, the murderer of the brothers, fled after fighting with his brother Yaroslav the Wise, who became the prince of Kyiv (1019-1054). In 1021, Yaroslav was opposed by the Polotsk prince Bryachislav (reigned in 1001-1044), with whom peace was bought at the price of ceding to Bryachislav key points on the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" - Usvyatsky portage and Vitebsk. Three years later, Yaroslav was opposed by his brother, Prince Mstislav of Tmutarakan. After the battle at Listven (1024), the Old Russian state was divided along the Dnieper: the right bank with Kiev went to Yaroslav, the left bank - to Mstislav. After the death of Mstislav (1036), the unity of Rus' was restored. Yaroslav the Wise led energetic activities to strengthen the state, eliminate church dependence on Byzantium (the formation of an independent metropolis in 1037) and expand urban planning. Under Yaroslav the Wise, the political ties of Ancient Rus' with the states of Western Europe were strengthened. The Old Russian state had dynastic ties with Germany, France, Hungary, Byzantium, Poland, and Norway.
The sons who inherited Yaroslav divided their father's possessions: Izyaslav Yaroslavich received Kyiv, Svyatoslav Yaroslavich - Chernigov, Vsevolod Yaroslavich - Pereyaslavl South. The Yaroslavichi tried to preserve the unity of the Old Russian state, tried to act in concert, but they could not prevent the process of state disintegration. The situation was complicated by the onslaught of the Polovtsy, in a battle with which the Yaroslavichs were defeated. The people's militia demanded weapons to resist the enemy. The refusal led to an uprising in Kyiv (1068), the flight of Izyaslav and the reign of Polotsk Vseslav Bryachislavich in Kyiv, who was expelled in 1069 by the combined forces of Izyaslav and Polish troops. Soon feuds arose among the Yaroslavichs, which led to the exile of Izyaslav to Poland (1073). After the death of Svyatoslav (1076), Izyaslav returned to Kyiv again, but was soon killed in battle (1078). Vsevolod Yaroslavich, who became the prince of Kyiv (reigned in 1078-1093), could not restrain the process of disintegration of the unified state. Only after the invasions of the Polovtsians (1093-1096 and 1101-1103) did the ancient Russian princes unite around the Kyiv prince to repel the common danger.
At the turn of the 11th-12th centuries. in the largest centers of Rus' reigned: Svyatopolk Izyaslavich (1093-1113) in Kyiv, Oleg Svyatoslavich in Chernigov, Vladimir Monomakh in Pereyaslavl. Vladimir Monomakh was a subtle politician, he urged the princes to unite more closely in the fight against the Polovtsy. The congresses of princes convened for this purpose did not justify themselves (Lyubechsky congress, Dolobsky congress). After the death of Svyatopolk (1113), a city uprising broke out in Kyiv. Monomakh, invited to reign in Kiev, issued a compromise law that eased the position of debtors. Gradually, he strengthened his position as the supreme ruler of Rus'. Having pacified the Novgorodians, Vladimir put his sons in Pereyaslavl, Smolensk and Novgorod. He almost unilaterally disposed of all the military forces of Ancient Rus', directed them not only against the Polovtsians, but also against recalcitrant vassals and neighbors. As a result of campaigns deep into the steppe, the Polovtsian danger was eliminated. But, despite the efforts of Monomakh, it was not possible to prevent the collapse of the Old Russian state. Objective historical processes continued to develop, which was expressed primarily in the rapid growth of local centers - Chernigov, Galich, Smolensk, striving for independence. The son of Monomakh, Mstislav Vladimirovich (who reigned in 1125-1132), managed to inflict a new defeat on the Polovtsy and send their princes to Byzantium (1129). After the death of Mstislav (1132), the Old Russian state broke up into a number of independent principalities. The period of fragmentation of Rus' began.
Fight against nomads. Ancient Rus' waged a constant struggle with the nomadic hordes, who alternately lived in the Black Sea steppes: Khazars, Ugrians, Pechenegs, Torks, Polovtsians. Nomads of the Pechenegs at the end of the 9th century. occupied the steppes from Sarkel on the Don to the Danube. Their raids forced Vladimir Svyatoslavich to strengthen the southern borders (“set up cities”). Yaroslav the Wise in 1036 actually destroyed the western unification of the Pechenegs. But then Torks appeared in the Black Sea steppes, which in 1060 were defeated by the combined forces of the ancient Russian princes. From the second half of the 11th c. the steppes from the Volga to the Danube began to be occupied by the Polovtsy, who mastered the most important trade routes between Europe and the countries of the East. The Polovtsy won a major victory over the Russians in 1068. Rus' withstood a strong onslaught of the Polovtsy in 1093-1096, which required the unification of all its princes. In 1101 relations with the Polovtsy improved, but already in 1103 the Polovtsy violated the peace treaty. It took a series of campaigns by Vladimir Monomakh against the Polovtsian winter quarters in the depths of the steppes, which ended in 1117 with their migration to the south, to the North Caucasus. The son of Vladimir Monomakh, Mstislav, pushed the Polovtsy beyond the Don, Volga and Yaik.
economy
In the era of the formation of the Old Russian state, arable farming with draft tillage tools gradually replaced hoe tillage everywhere (in the north somewhat later). A three-field system of agriculture appeared; wheat, oats, millet, rye, barley were grown. Chronicles mention spring and winter bread. The population was also engaged in cattle breeding, hunting, fishing and beekeeping. The village craft was of secondary importance. Iron-making production, based on local swamp ore, stood out the earliest. The metal was obtained by raw-blowing method. Written sources give several terms for designating a rural settlement: “pogost” (“peace”), “freedom” (“sloboda”), “village”, “village”. The study of the ancient Russian village by archaeologists made it possible to identify various types of settlements, to establish their size and the nature of development.
The main trend in the development of the social system of Ancient Rus' was the formation of feudal ownership of land, with the gradual enslavement of free community members. The result of the enslavement of the village was its inclusion in the system of feudal economy based on labor and food rent. Along with this, there were elements of slavery (servility).
In the 6th-7th centuries. in the forest zone, the places of settlements of a clan or a small family (fortifications) disappear, and they are replaced by unfortified village settlements and fortified estates of the nobility. The patrimonial economy begins to take shape. The center of the patrimony is the "princeyard", in which the prince lived at times, where, in addition to his choir, there were houses of his servants - boyars-druzhins, dwellings of smerds, serfs. The patrimony was ruled by a boyar - an ognischanin, who disposed of princely tiuns (cm. TIUN). Representatives of the patrimonial administration had both economic and political functions. Crafts developed in the patrimonial economy. With the complication of the patrimonial system, the seclusion of the private artisans began to disappear, and there was a connection with the market and competition with urban crafts.
The development of crafts and trade led to the emergence of cities. The most ancient of them are Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Smolensk, Rostov, Ladoga, Pskov, Polotsk. The center of the city was a trade where handicraft products were sold. Various types of crafts developed in the city: blacksmithing, weapons, jewelry (forging and chasing, embossing and stamping of silver and gold, filigree, granulation), pottery, leather, tailoring. In the second half of the 10th c. master marks appeared. Under Byzantine influence at the end of the 10th century. enamel production began. In large cities there were trading farmsteads for visiting merchants - "guests".
The trade route from Rus' to the eastern countries passed along the Volga and the Caspian Sea. The path to Byzantium and Scandinavia (the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks"), in addition to the main direction (Dnepr - Lovat), had a branch to the Western Dvina. Two routes led to the west: from Kyiv to Central Europe (Moravia, Czech Republic, Poland, Southern Germany) and from Novgorod and Polotsk across the Baltic Sea to Scandinavia and the Southern Baltic. In the 9th - mid-11th centuries. in Rus', the influence of Arab merchants was great, trade ties with Byzantium and Khazaria were strengthened. Ancient Rus' exported furs, wax, linen, linen, silverware to Western Europe. Expensive fabrics (Byzantine curtains, brocade, oriental silks), silver and copper in dirhems, tin, lead, copper, spices, incense, medicinal plants, dyes, Byzantine church utensils were imported. Later, in the middle of the 11th-12th centuries. In connection with the change in the international situation (the collapse of the Arab Caliphate, the dominance of the Polovtsians in the southern Russian steppes, the beginning of the Crusades), many traditional trade routes were disrupted. The penetration of Western European merchants into the Black Sea, the competition of the Genoese and Venetians paralyzed the trade of Ancient Rus' in the south, and by the end of the 12th century. it was mainly moved to the north - to Novgorod, Smolensk and Polotsk.
culture
The culture of Ancient Rus' is rooted in the depths of the culture of the Slavic tribes. During the formation and development of the state, it reached a high level and was enriched by the influence of Byzantine culture. As a result, Kievan Rus was among the culturally advanced states of its time. The center of culture was the city. Literacy in the Old Russian state was relatively widespread among the people, as evidenced by birch bark letters and inscriptions on household items (whorls, barrels, vessels). There is information about the existence of schools in Rus' at that time (even for women).
The parchment books of Ancient Rus' have survived to this day: translated literature, collections, liturgical books; among them the oldest - "Ostromir Gospel (cm. OSTROMIROVO GOSPEL)". The most educated in Rus' were the monks. Prominent cultural figures were Metropolitan Hilarion of Kiev (cm. HILARION (metropolitan)), Bishop of Novgorod Luka Zhidyata (cm. LUKA Zhidyata), Theodosius Pechersky (cm. THEODOSIY Pechersky), chroniclers Nikon (cm. NIKON (chronicler)), Nestor (cm. NESTOR (chronicler)), Sylvester (cm. Sylvester Pechersky). The assimilation of Church Slavonic writing was accompanied by the transfer to Rus' of the main monuments of early Christian and Byzantine literature: biblical books, the writings of the church fathers, the lives of the saints, the apocrypha (“The Virgin’s Passage through the Torments”), historiography (“The Chronicle” of John Malala), as well as works of Bulgarian literature (“ Shestodnev" by John), Chekhomoravian (lives of Vyacheslav and Lyudmila). In Rus', the Byzantine chronicles (George Amartol, Sinkella), the epic (“Deed of Devgen”), “Alexandria”, “The History of the Jewish War” by Josephus Flavius, from Hebrew - the book "Esther", from Syriac - the story of Akira the Wise . From the second quarter of the 11th c. original literature develops (chronicles, lives of saints, sermons). In the "Sermon on Law and Grace," Metropolitan Hilarion treated with rhetorical art the problems of the superiority of Christianity over paganism, the greatness of Rus' among other peoples. The Kievan and Novgorod chronicles were imbued with the ideas of state building. The chroniclers turned to the poetic traditions of pagan folklore. Nestor came to realize the kinship of the East Slavic tribes with all the Slavs. His "Tale of Bygone Years" acquired the significance of an outstanding chronicle of the European Middle Ages. Hagiographic literature was saturated with topical political issues, and its heroes were the princes-saints (“The Lives of Boris and Gleb”), and then the ascetics of the church (“The Life of Theodosius of the Caves”, “The Kiev-Pechersk Patericon”). In the lives for the first time, although in a schematic form, human experiences were depicted. Patriotic ideas were expressed in the genre of pilgrimage (The Journey by Abbot Daniel). In the "Instruction" to the sons, Vladimir Monomakh created the image of a just ruler, a zealous owner, an exemplary family man. Old Russian literary traditions and the richest oral epic prepared the emergence of the "Tale of Igor's Campaign (cm. A WORD ABOUT IGOREV'S POLIC)».
The experience of the East Slavic tribes in wooden architecture and construction of fortified settlements, dwellings, sanctuaries, their handicraft skills and traditions of artistic creativity were assimilated by the art of Ancient Rus'. In its formation, a huge role was played by the trends coming from abroad (from Byzantium, the Balkan and Scandinavian countries, Transcaucasia and the Middle East). In the relatively short period of the heyday of Ancient Rus', Russian masters mastered new methods of stone architecture, the art of mosaics, frescoes, icon painting, and book miniatures.
The types of ordinary settlements and dwellings, the technique of erecting wooden buildings from horizontally laid logs for a long time remained the same as that of the ancient Slavs. But already in the 9th - early 10th centuries. extensive yards of estates appeared, and in princely possessions - wooden castles (Lyubech). From the fortified settlements, fortress cities developed with residential buildings inside and with outbuildings adjacent to the defensive rampart (Kolodyazhnenskoe and Raykovets settlements, both in the Zhytomyr region; destroyed in 1241).
On trade routes at the confluence of rivers or at river bends, cities grew from large settlements of the Slavs and new ones were founded. They were composed of a fortress on a hill (detinets, the kremlin - the residence of the prince and a refuge for the townspeople in case of attack by enemies) with a defensive earthen rampart, a chopped wall on it and with a moat from the outside, and from the settlement (sometimes fortified). The streets of the settlement went to the Kremlin (Kiev, Pskov) or parallel to the river (Novgorod), in some places they had wooden pavements and were built up in treeless areas with huts (Kiev, Suzdal), and in forest areas - with log houses in one or two log cabins with canopies (Novgorod, Staraya Ladoga). The dwellings of wealthy townspeople consisted of several interconnected log cabins of different heights on the basement, had a tower (“polusha”), external porches and were located in the depths of the courtyard (Novgorod). Mansions in the Kremlin from the middle of the 10th century. had two-story stone parts, either tower-like (Chernigov), or with towers along the edges or in the middle (Kyiv). Sometimes the mansions contained halls with an area of more than 200 square meters (Kyiv). Common to the ancient Russian cities were the picturesque silhouette, dominated by the Kremlin with its colorful mansions and temples, shone with gilded roofs and crosses, and an organic connection with the landscape, which arose due to the use of the terrain not only for strategic, but also for artistic purposes.
From the second half of the 9th c. chronicles mention wooden Christian churches (Kyiv), the number and size of which increase after the baptism of Rus'. These were (judging by the conditional images in the manuscripts) rectangular, octagonal or cruciform in terms of construction with a steep roof and a cupola. Later they were crowned with five (the Church of Boris and Gleb in Vyshgorod near Kyiv, 1020-1026, the architect Mironeg) and even thirteen domes (the wooden St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, 989). The first stone Church of the Tithes in Kyiv (989-996, destroyed in 1240) was built of alternating rows of stone and flat square plinth bricks on mortar from a mixture of crushed bricks with lime (zemyanka). In the same technique, masonry was erected that appeared in the 11th century. stone travel towers in city fortifications (Golden Gate in Kiev), stone fortress walls (Pereyaslav Yuzhny, Kiev-Pechersky Monastery, Staraya Ladoga; all late 11th - early 12th centuries) and majestic three-aisled (Savior Transfiguration Cathedral in Chernigov, begun before 1036) and five-nave (Sophia Cathedrals in Kiev, 1037, Novgorod, 1045-1050, Polotsk, 1044-1066) churches with choirs along three walls for the princes and their entourage. The type of cross-domed church, universal for Byzantine religious construction, is interpreted by ancient Russian architects in its own way - domes on high light drums, flat niches (possibly with frescoes) on the facades, brick patterns in the form of crosses, meander. Old Russian architecture is similar to the architecture of Byzantium, the southern Slavs and Transcaucasia. At the same time, peculiar features are also manifested in ancient Russian churches: many domes (13 domes of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev), stepped arrangement of vaults and rows of semicircles-zakomars corresponding to them on the facades, porch-gallery on three sides. The stepped-pyramidal composition, majestic proportions and tensely slow rhythm, balance of space and mass make the architecture of these significant buildings solemn and full of restrained dynamics. Their interiors, with a contrasting transition from the low side aisles shaded by the choirs to the spacious and brighter domed part of the middle nave leading to the main apse, amaze with emotional intensity and evoke a wealth of impressions that are generated by spatial divisions and a variety of viewpoints.
The best-preserved mosaics and frescoes in the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (mid-11th century) were executed mainly by Byzantine masters. The murals in the towers are secular scenes of dances, hunts, and stadiums full of dynamics. In the images of saints, members of the grand-ducal family, the movement is sometimes only indicated, the poses are frontal, the faces are strict. Spiritual life is conveyed through a stingy gesture and wide-open large eyes, whose gaze is fixed directly on the parishioner. This imparts tension and strength to images imbued with high spirituality. By the monumental character of execution and composition they are organically connected with the architecture of the cathedral. The miniature of Ancient Rus' (“Ostromir Gospel” 1056-1057) and the colorful initials of handwritten books are distinguished by color richness and subtlety of execution. They resemble contemporary cloisonné enamel, which adorned the grand ducal crowns, pendants-colts, for which the Kyiv craftsmen were famous. In these products and in slate monumental reliefs, the motifs of Slavic and ancient mythology are combined with Christian symbols and iconography, reflecting the dual faith typical of the Middle Ages, which had long been retained among the people.
In the 11th century receives development and iconography. The works of Kyiv masters were widely recognized, especially the icons of the work of Alympius (cm. ALIMPIUS), which until the Mongol-Tatar invasion served as models for icon painters of all ancient Russian principalities. However, icons unconditionally related to the art of Kievan Rus have not been preserved.
In the second half of the 11th c. the princely construction of temples is being replaced by monastic construction. In fortresses and country castles, the princes built only small churches (Mikhailovskaya Goddess in Ostra, 1098, preserved in ruins; the Church of the Savior on Berestov in Kiev, between 1113 and 1125), and the leading type is the three-nave six-pillar monastery cathedral, more modest in size than urban, often without galleries and with choirs only along the western wall. Its static, closed volume, massive walls, divided into narrow parts by flat ledges-blades, create the impression of power and ascetic simplicity. Single-dome cathedrals are being built in Kyiv, sometimes without stair towers (the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev Caves Monastery, 1073-1078, destroyed in 1941). Novgorod churches of the early 12th century. crowned with three domes, one of which is above the stair tower (the cathedrals of Antoniev, founded in 1117, and St. George's, begun in 1119, monasteries), or five domes (Nikolo-Dvorishchensky Cathedral, founded in 1113). The simplicity and power of architecture, the organic fusion of the tower with the main volume of the cathedral of the St. George's Monastery (architect Peter), giving integrity to its composition, distinguish this temple as one of the highest achievements of ancient Russian architecture of the 12th century.
At the same time, the style of painting also changed. In the mosaics and frescoes of the St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kiev (circa 1108, the cathedral was not preserved, restored anew) made by Byzantine and Old Russian artists, the composition becomes freer, the refined psychologism of images is enhanced by the liveliness of movements and the individualization of characteristics. At the same time, as the mosaic is replaced by a cheaper and more accessible fresco, the role of local masters grows, who in their works depart from the canons of Byzantine art and at the same time flatten the image, strengthen the contour principle. In the paintings of the baptismal of St. Sophia Cathedral and the Cathedral of the St. Cyril Monastery (both in Kiev, 12th century), Slavic features prevail in types of faces, costumes, figures become squat, their color modeling is replaced by linear elaboration, colors brighten, halftones disappear; images of saints become closer to folklore ideas.
The artistic culture of the Old Russian state was further developed during the period of fragmentation in various ancient Russian principalities, due to the peculiarities of their economic and political life. A number of local schools arose (Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod), retaining a genetic commonality with the art of Kievan Rus and some similarities in artistic and stylistic evolution. In the local currents of the Dnieper and western principalities, the northeastern and northwestern lands, folk poetic ideas make themselves felt more strongly. The expressive possibilities of art are expanding, but the pathos of form is weakening.
A variety of sources (folk songs, epics, chronicles, works of ancient Russian literature, monuments of fine art) testify to the high development of ancient Russian music. Along with various types of folk art, military and solemn-ceremonial music played an important role. Trumpeters and performers on "tambourines" (percussion instruments such as drums or timpani) took part in military campaigns. At the court of the princes and the retinue nobility, singers and instrumentalists, both local and from Byzantium, were in the service. The singers sang the feats of arms of their contemporaries and legendary heroes in songs and tales that they themselves composed and performed to the accompaniment of the harp. Music sounded during official receptions, festivities, at the feasts of princes and eminent people. In folk life, a prominent place was occupied by the art of buffoons, in which singing and instrumental music were presented. Buffoons often appeared in princely palaces. After the adoption and spread of Christianity, church music was widely developed. The early written monuments of Russian musical art are associated with it - handwritten liturgical books with a conditional ideographic record of tunes. The foundations of ancient Russian church singing art were borrowed from Byzantium, but their further gradual transformation led to the formation of an independent singing style - Znamenny chant, along with which there was a special kind of kondakar singing.
encyclopedic Dictionary. 2009 .
Established by the IX century. the ancient Russian feudal state (also called Kievan Rus by historians) arose as a result of a very long and gradual process of splitting society into antagonistic classes, which took place among the Slavs throughout the first millennium of our era. Russian feudal historiography of the 16th - 17th centuries. sought to artificially link the early history of Rus' with the ancient peoples of Eastern Europe known to her - the Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans; the name of Rus was derived from the Saomatian tribe of the Roxalans.
In the XVIII century. some of the German scientists invited to Russia, who were arrogant about everything Russian, created a biased theory about the dependent development of Russian statehood. Based on an unreliable part of the Russian chronicle, which conveys the legend of the calling of a number of Slavic tribes as princes of three brothers (Rurik, Sineus and Truvor) - Varangians, Normans by origin, these historians began to assert that the Normans (detachments of Scandinavians who robbed in the 9th century on seas and rivers) were the creators of the Russian state. "Normanists", who poorly studied Russian sources, believed that the Slavs in the 9th-10th centuries. were completely wild people, who supposedly did not know either agriculture, or handicrafts, or settled settlements, or military affairs, or legal norms. They attributed the entire culture of Kievan Rus to the Varangians; The very name of Rus' was associated only with the Vikings.
M.V. Lomonosov heatedly objected to the "Normanists" - Bayer, Miller and Schlozer, initiating a two-century scientific controversy on the issue of the emergence of the Russian state. A significant part of the representatives of Russian bourgeois science of the 19th and early 20th centuries. supported the Norman theory, despite the abundance of new data that refuted it. This stemmed both from the methodological weakness of bourgeois science, which failed to rise to an understanding of the laws of the historical process, and due to the fact that the chronicle legend about the voluntary calling of princes by the people (created by the chronicler in the 12th century during the period of popular uprisings) continued into the 19th - XX centuries retain its political significance in explaining the question of the beginning of state power. The cosmopolitan tendencies of a part of the Russian bourgeoisie also contributed to the predominance of the Norman theory in official science. However, a number of bourgeois scholars have already criticized the Norman theory, seeing its inconsistency.
Soviet historians, approaching the question of the formation of the ancient Russian state from the standpoint of historical materialism, began to study the entire process of the disintegration of the primitive communal system and the emergence of the feudal state. To do this, it was necessary to significantly expand the chronological framework, look into the depths of Slavic history and draw on a number of new sources depicting the history of the economy and social relations many centuries before the formation of the Old Russian state (excavations of villages, workshops, fortresses, graves). It took a radical revision of Russian and foreign written sources that speak of Rus'.
The work on studying the prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state has not yet been completed, but even now an objective analysis of historical data has shown that all the main provisions of the Norman theory are incorrect, since they were generated by an idealistic understanding of history and an uncritical perception of sources (the range of which was artificially limited), as well as the bias of the researchers themselves. At present, the Norman theory is being promoted by individual foreign historians of the capitalist countries.
Russian chroniclers about the beginning of the state
The question of the beginning of the Russian state was of keen interest to Russian chroniclers of the 11th-12th centuries. The earliest chronicles, apparently, began their exposition with the reign of Kyi, who was considered the founder of the city of Kyiv and the Kyiv principality. The prince of the cue was compared with other founders of the largest cities - Romulus (founder of Rome), Alexander the Great (founder of Alexandria). The legend about the construction of Kyiv by Kiy and his brothers Shchek and Khoryv arose, obviously, long before the 11th century, since it was already in the 7th century. was recorded in the Armenian chronicle. In all likelihood, the time of Kiy is the period of Slavic campaigns on the Danube and in Byzantium, i.e. VI-VII centuries. The author of "The Tale of Bygone Years" - "Where did the Russian (s) land (and) who in Kyiv began the first prince ...", written at the beginning of the 12th century. (as historians think, by the Kyiv monk Nestor), reports that Kiy went to Constantinople, was the guest of honor of the Byzantine emperor, built a city on the Danube, but then returned to Kiev. Further in the "Tale" follows a description of the struggle of the Slavs with the nomadic Avars in the VI-VII centuries. Some chroniclers considered the “calling of the Varangians” to be the beginning of statehood in the second half of the 9th century. and to this date they drove all the other events of early Russian history known to them (Novgorod Chronicle). These writings, the tendentiousness of which was proved long ago, were used by the supporters of the Norman theory.
East Slavic tribes and unions of tribes on the eve of the formation of the state in Rus'
The state of Rus was formed from fifteen large regions inhabited by Eastern Slavs, well known to the chronicler. Glades have long lived near Kyiv. The chronicler considered their land to be the core of the ancient Russian state and noted that in his time the glades were called Rus. The neighbors of the meadows in the east were the northerners who lived along the rivers Desna, Seim, Sula and the Northern Donets, which retained the memory of the northerners in its name. Down the Dnieper, south of the meadows, lived the streets, who moved in the middle of the 10th century. in the interfluve of the Dniester and the Bug. In the west, the neighbors of the glades were the Drevlyans, who often quarreled with the Kievan princes. Even further to the west were the lands of the Volynians, Buzhans and Dulebs. The extreme East-Slazian regions were the lands of the Tivertsy on the Dniester (ancient Tiras) and on the Danube and the White Croats in Transcarpathia.
To the north of the glades and the Drevlyans were the lands of the Dregovichi (on the swampy left bank of the Pripyat), and to the east of them, along the Sozhu River, were the Radimichi. The Vyatichi lived on the Oka and the Moscow River, bordering on the non-Slavic Meryan-Mordovian tribes of the Middle Oka. The chronicler calls the northern regions in contact with the Lithuanian-Latvian and Chud tribes the lands of the Krivichi (the upper reaches of the Volga, Dnieper and Dvina), Polotsk and Slovenian (around Lake Ilmen).
In the historical literature, the conditional term “tribes” (“tribes of the glades”, “tribe of Radimichi”, etc.) was strengthened behind these areas, but was not used, however, by the chroniclers. In terms of size, these Slavic regions are so large that they can be compared with entire states. A careful study of these areas shows that each of them was an association of several small tribes, whose names were not preserved in the sources on the history of Rus'. Among the Western Slavs, the Russian chronicler mentions in the same way only such large areas as, for example, the land of the Lutichi, and from other sources it is known that the Lutichi are not one tribe, but an association of eight tribes. Consequently, the term "tribe", speaking of family ties, should be applied to much smaller divisions of the Slavs, which have already disappeared from the memory of the chronicler. The regions of the Eastern Slavs, mentioned in the annals, should be considered not as tribes, but as federations, unions of tribes.
In ancient times, the Eastern Slavs apparently consisted of 100-200 small tribes. The tribe, representing a set of related clans, occupied an area of about 40 - 60 km in diameter. In each tribe, probably, a veche gathered to decide the most important issues of public life; a military leader (prince) was chosen; there was a permanent squad of youth and a tribal militia (“regiment”, “thousand”, divided into “hundreds”). Within the tribe there was a "city". A tribal veche gathered there, there was a bargaining, a court was held. There was a sanctuary where representatives of the entire tribe gathered.
These "grads" were not yet real cities, but many of them, which for several centuries were the centers of a tribal district, with the development of feudal relations turned into either feudal castles or cities.
The result of major changes in the structure of tribal communities, replaced by neighboring communities, was the process of formation of tribal unions, which proceeded especially intensively from the 5th century BC. 6th century writer Jordanes says that the common collective name of the populous people of the Wends "is now changing according to different tribes and localities." The stronger the process of disintegration of primitive tribal isolation went on, the stronger and more durable the alliances of tribes became.
The development of peaceful ties between tribes, or the military victories of some tribes over others, or, finally, the need to combat a common external danger, contributed to the creation of tribal alliances. Among the Eastern Slavs, the addition of the fifteen large tribal unions mentioned above can be attributed approximately to the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e.
Thus, during the VI - IX centuries. the prerequisites for feudal relations arose and the process of folding the ancient Russian feudal state took place.
The natural internal development of Slavic society was complicated by a number of external factors (for example, nomadic raids) and the direct participation of the Slavs in major events in world history. This makes the study of the pre-feudal period in the history of Rus' especially difficult.
Origin of Rus'. Formation of the Old Russian people
Most pre-revolutionary historians associated the origin of the Russian state with the ethnicity of the people "Rus". about which chroniclers speak. Accepting without much criticism the chronicle legend about the calling of princes, historians sought to determine the origin of the "Rus" to which these overseas princes supposedly belonged. The "Normanists" insisted that "Rus" is the Varangians, the Normans, i.e. inhabitants of Scandinavia. But the absence in Scandinavia of information about a tribe or locality called "Rus" has long shaken this thesis of the Norman theory. Historians "anti-Normanists" undertook a search for the people "Rus" in all directions from the indigenous Slavic territory.
Lands and states of the Slavs:
Eastern
Western
Borders of states at the end of the 9th century.
Ancient Rus were searched among the Baltic Slavs, Lithuanians, Khazars, Circassians, Finno-Ugric peoples of the Volga region, Sarmatian-Alanian tribes, etc. Only a small part of scientists, relying on direct evidence from sources, defended the Slavic origin of Rus'.
Soviet historians, having proved that the annalistic legend about the calling of princes from across the sea cannot be considered the beginning of Russian statehood, also found out that the identification of Rus with the Varangians in the annals is erroneous.
Iranian geographer of the middle of the 9th century. Ibn-Khordadbeh points out that "the Rus are a tribe of Slavs." The Tale of Bygone Years speaks of the identity of the Russian language with the Slavic. The sources also contain more precise indications that help to determine among which part of the Eastern Slavs one should look for Rus.
Firstly, in the "Tale of Bygone Years" it is said about the glades: "even now the calling of Rus'." Consequently, the ancient Rus tribe was located somewhere in the Middle Dnieper region, near Kyiv, which arose in the land of glades, on which the name of Rus subsequently passed. Secondly, in various Russian chronicles of the time of feudal fragmentation, a double geographical name of the words “Russian land”, “Rus” is noticed. Sometimes they understand all the East Slavic lands, sometimes the words "Russian land", "Rus" are used in the land should be considered more ancient and very narrow, geographically limited sense, denoting the forest-steppe strip from Kiev and the Ros River to Chernigov, Kursk and Voronezh. This narrow understanding of the Russian land should be considered more ancient and be traced back to the 6th-7th centuries, when it was within these limits that a homogeneous material culture existed, known from archaeological finds.
By the middle of the VI century. The first mention of Rus' in written sources also applies. One Syrian author - the successor of Zechariah Rhetor - mentions the people "ros", who lived next to the mythical Amazons (whose residence is usually dated to the Don basin).
On the territory outlined by chronicle and archaeological data, several Slavic tribes lived here for a long time. In all probability. The Russian land got its name from one of them, but it is not known for certain where this tribe was located. Judging by the fact that the oldest pronunciation of the word "Rus" sounded somewhat different, namely as "ros" (the people "rose" in the 6th century, "Rossky letters" in the 9th century, "Pravda Rosskaya" in the 11th century), apparently , the initial location of the Ros tribe should be sought on the Ros River (a tributary of the Dnieper, below Kiev), where, moreover, the richest archaeological materials of the 5th-7th centuries were found, including silver items with princely signs on them.
The further history of Rus' must be considered in connection with the formation of the ancient Russian nationality, which eventually embraced all the East Slavic tribes.
The core of the ancient Russian people is that "Russian land" of the 6th century, which, apparently, included the Slavic tribes of the forest-steppe zone from Kyiv to Voronezh. It included the lands of the glades, northerners, Russ and, in all likelihood, the streets. These lands formed a union of tribes, which, as one might think, took the name of the most significant Rus tribe at that time. The Russian union of tribes, which became famous far beyond its borders as a land of tall and strong heroes (Zacharia Rhetor), was stable and long-lasting, since a similar culture developed throughout its space and the name of Rus' was firmly and permanently entrenched in all its parts. The union of the tribes of the Middle Dnieper and the Upper Don took shape during the period of Byzantine campaigns and the struggle of the Slavs with the Avars. The Avars failed in the VI-VII centuries. to invade this part of the Slavic lands, although they conquered the Dulebs who lived to the west.
Obviously, the rallying of the Dnieper-Don Slavs into an extensive alliance contributed to their successful struggle against the nomads.
The formation of the nation went in parallel with the folding of the state. National events strengthened the ties established between the individual parts of the country and contributed to the creation of the Old Russian people with a single language (if there were dialects), with their own territory and culture.
By IX - X centuries. the main ethnic territory of the Old Russian people was formed, the Old Russian literary language was formed (based on one of the dialects of the original "Russian Land" of the 6th-7th centuries). The ancient Russian nationality arose, uniting all the East Slavic tribes and becoming the single cradle of the three fraternal Slavic peoples of the later time - Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.
In the composition of the ancient Russian people, who lived in the territory from Lake Ladoga to the Black Sea and from Transcarpathia to the Middle Volga, small foreign-speaking tribes gradually joined in the process of assimilation, falling under the influence of Russian culture: Merya, all, Chud, the remnants of the Scythian-Sarmatian population in the south, some Turkic-speaking tribes.
Faced with the Persian languages, which were spoken by the descendants of the Scythian-Sarmatians, with the Finno-Finnish languages of the peoples of the northeast and others, the Old Russian language invariably emerged victorious, enriching itself at the expense of the conquered languages.
Formation of the state of Rus'
The formation of the state is the natural completion of a long process of formation of feudal relations and antagonistic classes of feudal society. The feudal state apparatus, as an apparatus of coercion, adapted for its own purposes the previous tribal governments, which were completely different from it in essence, but similar to it in form and terminology. Such tribal bodies were, for example, "prince", "voivode", "team", etc. KI X-X centuries. the process of gradual maturation of feudal relations in the most developed areas of the Eastern Slavs (in the southern, forest-steppe lands) was clearly defined. Tribal elders and leaders of squads, who seized communal land, turned into feudal lords, tribal princes became feudal sovereigns, tribal unions grew into feudal states. A hierarchy of landowning nobility took shape and was established. coaod^-management of princes of different ranks. The young emerging class of feudal lords needed to create a strong state apparatus that would help it secure communal peasant lands and enslave the free peasant population, as well as provide protection from external intrusions.
The chronicler mentions a number of principalities - federations of tribes of the pre-feudal period: Polyansky, Drevlyansky, Dregovichsky, Polotsk, Slovenian. Some Eastern writers report that Kiev (Kuyaba) was the capital of Rus', and besides it, two more cities were especially famous: Dzhervab (or Artania) and Selyabe, in which, in all likelihood, you need to see Chernigov and Pereyas-lavl - the oldest Russian cities always mentioned in Russian documents near Kiev.
Treaty of Prince Oleg with Byzantium at the beginning of the 10th century. knows the already branched feudal hierarchy: boyars, princes, grand dukes (in Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Lyubech, Rostov, Polotsk) and the supreme overlord of the “Grand Duke of Russia”. Eastern sources of the 9th century. they call the head of this hierarchy the title "Khakan-Rus", equating the prince of Kyiv with the lords of strong and powerful powers (Avar Khagan, Khazar Khagan, etc.), sometimes competing with the Byzantine Empire itself. In 839, this title was also included in Western sources (the Vertinsky Annals of the 9th century). All sources unanimously call Kyiv the capital of Rus'.
The fragment of the original chronicle text that survived in The Tale of Bygone Years allows us to determine the size of Rus' in the first half of the 9th century. The composition of the ancient Russian state included the following tribal unions, which previously had independent reigns: the glades, the northerners, the drevlyans, the Dregovichi, the Polochans, and the Novgorod Slovenes. In addition, the chronicle lists up to a dozen Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes who paid tribute to Rus'.
Rus' of that time was a vast state, which already united half of the East Slavic tribes and collected tribute from the peoples of the Baltic and the Volga region.
In all likelihood, the Kiya dynasty reigned in this state, the last representatives of which (judging by some chronicles) were in the middle of the 9th century. princes Dir and Askold. About Prince Dir, an Arab author of the 10th century. Masudi writes: “The first of the Slavic kings is the king of Dir; it has vast cities and many inhabited countries. Muslim merchants arrive in the capital of his state with various kinds of goods. Later, Novgorod was conquered by the Varangian prince Rurik, and Kyiv was captured by the Varangian prince Oleg.
Other Eastern writers of the 9th - early 10th centuries. provide interesting information about agriculture, cattle breeding, beekeeping in Rus', about Russian gunsmiths and carpenters, about Russian merchants who traveled along the "Russian Sea" (Black Sea), and made their way to the East in other ways.
Of particular interest are data on the internal life of the ancient Russian state. So, the Central Asian geographer, who used the sources of the 9th century, reports that “the Rus have a class of knights”, that is, the feudal nobility.
Other sources also know the division into noble and poor. According to Ibn-Ruste (903), dating back to the 9th century, the king of the Rus (i.e., the Grand Duke of Kiev) judges and sometimes exiles criminals "to the rulers of remote regions." In Rus', there was a custom of "God's judgment", i.e. resolving disputes by duel. For particularly serious crimes, the death penalty was applied. The king of the Rus annually traveled around the country, collecting tribute from the population.
The Russian tribal union, which turned into a feudal state, subjugated the neighboring Slavic tribes and equipped distant campaigns across the southern steppes and seas. In the 7th century the sieges of Constantinople by the Rus and the formidable campaigns of the Rus through Khazaria to the Derbent passage are mentioned. In the VII - IX centuries. the Russian prince Bravlin fought in the Khazar-Byzantine Crimea, passing from Surozh to Korchev (from Sudak to Kerch). About the Rus of the 9th century the Central Asian author wrote: "They fight with the surrounding tribes and defeat them."
Byzantine sources contain information about the Rus who lived on the Black Sea coast, about their campaigns against Constantinople, and about the baptism of a part of the Rus in the 60s of the 9th century.
The Russian state was formed independently of the Varangians, as a result of the natural development of society. At the same time, other Slavic states arose - the Bulgarian kingdom, the Great Moravian state and a number of others.
Since the Normanists greatly exaggerate the impact of the Varangians on Russian statehood, it is necessary to resolve the question: what is the actual role of the Varangians in the history of our Motherland?
In the middle of the 9th century, when Kievan Rus had already formed in the Middle Dnieper region, on the far northern outskirts of the Slavic world, where the Slavs lived peacefully side by side with the Finnish and Latvian tribes (Chud, Korela, Letgola, etc.), detachments of the Varangians began to appear, sailing from the Baltic Sea. The Slavs and the Chud drove these detachments away; we know that the Kyiv princes of that time sent their troops to the north to fight the Varangians. It is possible that it was then that near the old tribal centers of Polotsk and Pskov, a new city, Novgorod, grew up in an important strategic place near Lake Ilmen, which was supposed to block the Varangians from reaching the Volga and the Dnieper. For nine centuries until the construction of St. Petersburg, Novgorod either defended Rus' from overseas pirates, or was a “window to Europe” for the trade of the northern Russian regions.
In 862 or 874 (the chronology is inconsistent), the Varangian king Rurik appeared near Novgorod. From this adventurer, who led a small squad, the genealogy of all the Russian princes of the “Rurikoviches” was conducted without any special reason (although Russian historians of the 11th century led the genealogy of princes from Igor the Old, without mentioning Rurik).
The Varangians-aliens did not take possession of Russian cities, but set up their fortifications-camps next to them. Near Novgorod they lived in the “Ryurik settlement”, near Smolensk - in Gnezdovo, near Kiev - in the Ugorsky tract. There could be both merchants and Varangian warriors hired by the Russians. The important thing is that nowhere the Varangians were the masters of Russian cities.
Archaeological data show that the number of Varangian warriors themselves, who lived permanently in Rus', was very small.
In 882 one of the Varangian leaders; Oleg made his way from Novgorod to the south, took Lyubech, which served as a kind of northern gate of the Kiev principality, and sailed to Kiev, where he managed to kill the Kiev prince Askold and seize power by deceit and cunning. Until now, in Kyiv, on the banks of the Dnieper, a place called "Askold's Grave" has been preserved. It is possible that Prince Askold was the last representative of the ancient Kiya dynasty.
The name of Oleg is associated with several campaigns for tribute to neighboring Slavic tribes and the famous campaign of Russian troops against Constantinople in 911. Apparently, Oleg did not feel like a master in Rus'. It is curious that after a successful campaign in Byzantium, he and the Varangians surrounding him ended up not in the capital of Rus', but far to the north, in Ladoga, from where the path to their homeland, Sweden, was close. It also seems strange that Oleg, to whom the creation of the Russian state is completely unreasonably attributed, disappeared without a trace from the Russian horizon, leaving the chroniclers in bewilderment. Novgorodians, geographically close to the Varangian lands, Oleg's homeland, wrote that, according to one version known to them, after the Greek campaign, Oleg came to Novgorod, and from there to Ladoga, where he died and was buried. According to another version, he sailed across the sea "and I will peck (his) winters in the leg and from that (he) will die." The people of Kiev, repeating the legend of the snake that stung the prince, told that he was buried in Kyiv on Mount Schekavitsa (“Serpent Mountain”); perhaps the name of the mountain influenced the fact that Shchekavitsa was artificially associated with Oleg.
In the IX - X centuries. Normans played an important role in the history of many peoples of Europe. They attacked the shores of England, France, Italy from the sea in large fleets, conquered cities and kingdoms. Some scientists believed that Rus' was subjected to the same massive invasion of the Varangians, while forgetting that continental Rus' was the complete geographical opposite of the western maritime states.
The formidable fleet of the Normans could suddenly appear in front of London or Marseilles, but not a single Varangian boat that entered the Neva and sailed upstream of the Neva, Volkhov, Lovat could not go unnoticed by Russian watchmen from Novgorod or Pskov. The portage system, when heavy, deep-sea vessels had to be pulled ashore and rolled for tens of miles along the ground on skating rinks, excluded the element of surprise and robbed the formidable armada of all its fighting qualities. In practice, only as many Varangians could get into Kyiv as the prince of Kievan Rus allowed. Not without reason, that one time, when the Varangians attacked Kyiv, they had to pretend to be merchants.
The reign of the Varangian Oleg in Kyiv is an insignificant and short-lived episode, overblown by some pro-Varangian chroniclers and later Normanist historians. The campaign of 911 - the only reliable fact from his reign - became famous thanks to the brilliant literary form in which it was described, but in essence this is only one of the many campaigns of Russian squads of the 9th - 10th centuries. on the coast of the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea, about which the chronicler is silent. During the X century. and the first half of the 11th century. Russian princes often hired detachments of the Varangians for wars and palace service; they were often entrusted with murders from around the corner: hired Varangians stabbed, for example, Prince Yaropolk in 980, they killed Prince Boris in 1015; Varangians were hired by Yaroslav for the war with his own father.
In order to streamline the relationship between the mercenary Varangian detachments and the local Novgorod squad, Yaroslav's Pravda was published in Novgorod in 1015, limiting the arbitrariness of violent mercenaries.
The historical role of the Varangians in Rus' was negligible. Appearing as "finders", the newcomers, attracted by the splendor of the rich, already far-famous Kievan Rus, they plundered the northern outskirts in separate raids, but they were able to get to the heart of Rus only once.
There is nothing to say about the cultural role of the Varangians. The treaty of 911, concluded on behalf of Oleg and containing about a dozen Scandinavian names of the Oleg boyars, was written not in Swedish, but in Slavonic. The Vikings had nothing to do with the creation of the state, the construction of cities, the laying of trade routes. They could neither speed up nor significantly delay the historical process in Rus'.
The short period of Oleg's "principality" - 882 - 912. - left in the people's memory an epic song about the death of Oleg from his own horse (processed by A.S. Pushkin in his "Songs about the Prophetic Oleg"), interesting for its anti-Varangian tendency. The image of a horse in Russian folklore is always very benevolent, and if the owner, the Varangian prince, is already predicted to die from his war horse, then he deserves it.
The struggle against the Varangian elements in the Russian squads continued until 980; there are traces of it both in the annals and in the epic epic - the epic about Mikul Selyaninovich, who helped Prince Oleg Svyatoslavich fight the Varangian Sveneld (black raven Santal).
The historical role of the Varangians is incomparably less than the role of the Pechenegs or Polovtsy, who really influenced the development of Rus' for four centuries. Therefore, the life of only one generation of Russian people, who endured the participation of the Varangians in the administration of Kiev and several other cities, does not seem to be a historically important period.
The origin of the history of the reign of the Old Russian princes can be seen from the time of the activities of the Varangian prince Rurik (862–879).
(879–912) Oleg is the very first of the princes who began to rule the Old Russian state after the Varangians appeared on the Dnieper. He was connected with Rurik by family roots, he was also the guardian of his underage son. During the reign of Oleg, Smolensk was captured. Prince Oleg managed to unite the Slavic tribes. He subjugated Kyiv under his rule in 882, as a result of which he killed the princes Askold and Dir, who ruled in Kyiv at that time. Then Oleg made Kyiv the capital, the main city over all Russian cities. Thus, Kievan Rus was born. Among his achievements are military operations with Byzantium, two successful campaigns against Constantinople. As a result of these campaigns, Rus' won two peace treaties in 907 and 911. With the capture of the Drevlyans (883), the concept of tribute came to Rus', which was collected from them. Gradually, Oleg defeated both the northerners and the glades and the Radimichi, who before him paid tribute to the Russian enemies - the Khazars (885).
Igor Rurikovich (912-945) - the son of Rurik, a follower of Oleg, who continued the work of his predecessor - expanded the Old Russian state by joining the rest of the tribal unions. He also went with the army to Byzantium, and in 944 an agreement was signed with her, which was considered beneficial to both. Prince Igor was the first to recognize the raids of the Pechenegs (Turkic nomads). The innovation that he organized for the first time - the collection of tribute from the Drevlyans (polyudye), and became his death, when once again in 945 he demanded tribute on the lands subject to him.
Olga (945-969) - the first female princess, the wife of the late Igor. Unlike her husband, she completely took power into her own hands and subjugated not only Kyiv, but the whole of Kievan Rus. And the amount of tribute, which under Igor had a changeable character, she managed to legalize, even establishing one place where tribute was brought. Olga became the first Christian to be baptized in Constantinople in 957 under a false name (Elena).
Svyatoslav Igorevich is a follower of his mother Olga, who began his reign in 962. In 964, he nevertheless took under the power of the Old Russian state the last of the East Slavic tribes - the Vyatichi, from whom he collected tribute. The year 965 is the most significant for Svyatoslav, because the Khazar capital and several other cities were taken by storm, and a fortress was built on one of the cities. The return from the Danube in 972 ended in complete failure for Svyatoslav - he was killed by the Pechenegs. During the principality, Svyatoslav showed his abilities as a talented commander.
Vladimir (980-1015) - one of the sons of Svyatoslav, who won the internecine war with his brother. In the books of the Old Russian state, he was equated with the apostles. This is due to the Orthodox traditions with the spread of Christianity. In the memory of the Old Russian people, he remained under the name Vladimir the Red Sun. Among all the princes of the Old Russian state, Vladimir managed not only to expand the borders of Rus', but also to strengthen it as a powerful state. Among his numerical victories are the victory over the Radimichi, good luck from campaigns on Polish lands, on Pecheneg territories, and the construction of fortresses. In a number of reforms that were carried out, there was a pagan reform (980) - the god Perun was placed at the head of the pagan pantheon. But this was not enough, because the new ideology did not succumb to the outdated principles of the ancient religion. Vladimir thought politically and understood that the new religion, that is, Christianity, would significantly strengthen the international relations of Rus' with Byzantium and its culture. And in 988 the people were converted to Christianity, and the remnants of paganism were destroyed. As a result, the power of the prince became more powerful, the unity of both the people and the state as a whole was strengthened.
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