How Alexander Nevsky won the battle on the ice. "Battle on the Ice"

By the middle of the 13th century, the Eastern Baltic became a place where the interests of several geopolitical players collided. Short truces were followed by outbreaks of hostilities, which sometimes developed into real battles. One of the greatest events in history was the Battle of Lake Peipsi.

Background

The main center of power medieval Europe was Roman catholic church. The Pope had unlimited power, had colossal financial resources, moral authority and could remove any ruler from the throne.

The crusades to Palestine organized by the popes long fevered the entire Middle East. After the defeat of the crusaders, the calm was short-lived. The object that was to taste “European values” were the pagan Baltic tribes.

As a result of the active preaching of the Word of Christ, the pagans were partly destroyed, some were baptized. The Prussians disappeared completely.

The Teutonic Order settled on the territory of modern Latvia and Estonia, whose vassal was the Livonian Order (the former clan of the Swordbearers). It had a common border with the feudal republics of Rus'.

States of medieval Rus'

Mister Veliky Novgorod and the Pskov state had their own plans for the Baltic states. Yaroslav the Wise founded the Yuryev fortress on Estonian land. The Novgorodians, having subjugated the bordering Finno-Ugric tribes, made their way to the sea, where they encountered Scandinavian competitors.

In the 12th century there were several waves of Danish invasions of the Baltic lands. Systematically capturing the territory of the Estonians, the Danes settled in the north and islands of the Moonsund archipelago. Their goal was to transform the Baltic Sea into a “Danish lake”. Swedish expeditionary force, with whom Alexander Nevsky fought, had the same goals as the Novgorodians.

The Swedes were defeated. However, for Alexander Yaroslavich himself, the victory on the Neva turned into an unexpected “surprise”: the Novgorod elite, fearing the strengthening of the prince’s influence, forced him to leave the city.

Composition and strengths of the warring parties

Lake Peipsi became the site of a clash between Novgorodians and Livonians, but there were many more parties interested and involved in this event. On the side of the Europeans were:

Livonian Landmastery of the Teutonic Order (what is commonly called the Livonian Order). His cavalry took a direct part in the conflict.
Bishopric of Dorpat (autonomous part of the Order). The war took place on its territory. The city of Dorpat deployed a foot militia. The role of the infantrymen is not fully understood.
The Teutonic Order, which exercised general leadership.
The Roman throne provided financial support, as well as moral and ethical justification for European expansion to the East.

The forces opposing the Germans were not homogeneous. The army consisted of representatives of different lands who had their own beliefs. Among them were those who adhered to traditional pre-Christian beliefs.

Important! Many participants in the battle were not Christians.

Forces of the Orthodox-Slavic military alliance:

Mister Veliky Novgorod. Nominally it was the main military component. The Novgorodians provided material supplies and provided rear support, and were also infantry during the battle.
Pskov feudal republic. Initially it acted in alliance with Novgorod, then stepped aside, taking a neutral position. Some Pskovites volunteered to fight on the side of Novgorod.
Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. Direct military ally of Alexander Nevsky.
Volunteers from among the Prussians, Curonians and other Baltic tribes. Being pagans, they were highly motivated to wage war against the Catholics.

Home military force The Russian squad was Alexander Nevsky.

Enemy tactics

The Livonians chose an opportune moment to start the war. Strategically, the Russian lands represented an ineffective dynastic union, the members of which had no other connections other than mutual grievances and claims.

The unsuccessful war with Rus' reduced it to a semi-subordinate state to other states.

Tactically, the matter seemed no less winning. The Novgorodians who drove Alexander away were good traders, but not soldiers.

Their loose, poorly trained militia was not capable of meaningful and prolonged combat operations. There were no experienced governors (military specialists - professionals capable of leading troops). There was no talk of any unified management. The Novgorod veche, with all its positive aspects, did not contribute to the strengthening of state structures.

Another important “trump card” of the Livonians was the presence of agents of influence. In Novgorod itself there were supporters of maximum rapprochement with Catholics, but there were many more of them among the Pskovites.

The role of Pskov

The Pskov Republic carried greatest losses from the Slavic-Germanic conflict. Being at the very line of confrontation, the Pskovites were the first to come under attack. A small territory with limited resources was increasingly burdened by this situation. Both the authorities and the population, especially rural ones, had their place.

Beginning of the war

In August 1240, parts of the crusaders became more active, capturing the city of Izborsk. The few detachments of Pskovites who tried to recapture it were scattered, and Pskov itself was besieged.

After negotiations, the gates were opened, the Germans left their representatives in the city. Obviously, some agreements were concluded according to which the Pskov lands passed into the enemy zone of influence.

In the official national history Pskov's behavior is characterized as shameful and treacherous. However, it should be borne in mind that it was a sovereign state that had the right to enter into any alliances with any side. Politically, Pskov was as independent as Novgorod or any Russian principality . Pskovites had the right to choose with whom to enter into alliances.

Attention! Novgorod did not provide assistance to its ally.

The Novgorodians also turned out to be unable to resist the enemy on the coast. Not far from the sea, the Livonians built a wooden fortress (Koporye) and imposed tribute on the local tribes. This move remained unanswered.

Alexander Nevsky came to the rescue

“Prince Alexander came to Novgorod, and for the sake of Novgorod,” says the chronicle. Realizing that further developments could lead to a sad outcome, the Novgorod authorities asked for help. The Grand Duke of Vladimir sent them a detachment of cavalry. However, only Alexander Yaroslavich, with whom the Novgorodians had recently been in conflict, could cope with the Germans.

The young commander, who had recently tried the sword on the Swedes, acted quickly. In 1241, his squad, reinforced by a militia of Karelians, Izhorians and the Novgorodians themselves, approached Koporye. The fortress was taken and destroyed. Alexander released some of the captured Germans. And the winner hanged the Vod (a small Baltic people) and the Chud (Estonians) as traitors. The immediate threat to Novgorod was eliminated. It was necessary to choose the location of the next strike.

Liberation of Pskov

The city was well fortified. The prince did not storm the fortified fortification, even after receiving reinforcements from Suzdal. In addition, the enemy garrison was small. The Livonians relied on their Pskov proteges.

After a short skirmish, the German army was blocked, the soldiers laid down their arms. Alexander left the Germans for later ransom, and the Russian traitors and ordered the Estonians to be hanged. Next the path went to Izborsk, which was also liberated.

In a short time, the area was cleared of uninvited guests. Before the princely squad there was a foreign land. Having pushed forward the vanguard for reconnaissance and robbery, Alexander entered the borders of Livonia. Soon the advance detachment came across enemy cavalry, retreating after a short battle. The opponents learned each other's location and began preparing for battle.

Great Battle

Both sides relied on heavy cavalry. At the time described troop effectiveness(briefly) was assessed as follows:

Regular heavy cavalry. The striking force of almost any European army.
Feudal militia. Knights who served for a certain number of days. Unlike the regular cavalry, they had low discipline and did not know how to fight on horseback.
Regular infantry. Almost absent. The exception was archers.
Foot militia. Europeans had almost no medieval Rus' forced to be used quite widely. Its combat effectiveness was very low. A hundred knights could defeat an army of thousands of irregular infantry.

The Order and Alexander Nevsky had at hand armored horsemen with iron discipline and many years of training. It was they who fought on April 5, 1242 on the shores of Lake Peipus. This date became significant for Russian history.

Progress of hostilities

The knightly cavalry crushed the center of the Novgorod army, which consisted of infantrymen. However, the inconvenient terrain forced the crusaders slow down. They got stuck in a static cabin, stretching the front more and more. The Dorpat foot militia, which could have balanced the forces, did not come to the rescue.

Without room to maneuver, the cavalry lost its “move” and found itself squeezed into a small, inconvenient space for battle. Then the squad of Prince Alexander struck. Its location, according to legend, was the island of Voroniy Kamen. This turned the tide of the battle.

The cavalry of the Aloth Order retreated. The Russian cavalry pursued the enemy for several kilometers, and then, having collected prisoners, returned to the banner of Prince Alexander Yaroslavich. Nevsky won the battle. The victory was complete and received loud name - Battle on the Ice.

Data on the exact location of the battle, the number of participants, and losses vary. The map of the Battle of the Ice is approximate. There are different versions of the event. Including those who deny the very fact of the battle.

Meaning

The victory over the knights significantly reduced the pressure on the borders of Russian lands. Novgorod defended access to the sea and continued profitable trade with Europe. An important moral and political aspect of the victory was the disruption of the plans of the Roman Church to penetrate Catholicism into the East. A border was established between Western and Russian civilizations. With minor changes it still exists today.

Secrets and mysteries of the Battle of Lake Peipsi

Alexander Nevsky, ice battle

Conclusion

There is one more important significance of the battle to be noted. After a long series of defeats, the Mongol invasion and national humiliation, there was a resounding victory was won. The significance of the Battle of the Ice is that, in addition to military success, a significant psychological effect was achieved. From now on, Rus' realized that it was capable of defeating the most powerful enemy.

Map 1239-1245

The Rhymed Chronicle specifically says that twenty knights were killed and six were captured. The discrepancy in assessments can be explained by the fact that the Chronicle refers only to “brothers”-knights, without taking into account their squads; in this case, out of 400 Germans who fell on the ice of Lake Peipsi, twenty were real “brothers”-knights, and from 50 prisoners were “brothers” 6.

“Chronicle of the Grand Masters” (“Die jungere Hochmeisterchronik”, sometimes translated as “Chronicle of the Teutonic Order”), the official history of the Teutonic Order, written much later, speaks of the death of 70 order knights (literally “70 order gentlemen”, “seuentich Ordens Herenn” ), but unites those who died during the capture of Pskov by Alexander and on Lake Peipus.

The immediate site of the battle, according to the conclusions of the expedition of the USSR Academy of Sciences led by Karaev, can be considered a section of Warm Lake, located 400 meters west of the modern shore of Cape Sigovets, between its northern tip and the latitude of the village of Ostrov.

Consequences

In 1243, the Teutonic Order concluded a peace treaty with Novgorod and officially renounced all claims to Russian lands. Despite this, ten years later the Teutons tried to recapture Pskov. The wars with Novgorod continued.

According to the traditional point of view in Russian historiography, this battle, together with the victories of Prince Alexander over the Swedes (July 15, 1240 on the Neva) and over the Lithuanians (in 1245 near Toropets, near Lake Zhitsa and near Usvyat), had great value for Pskov and Novgorod, delaying the onslaught of three serious enemies from the west - at the very time when the rest of Rus' was greatly weakened Mongol invasion. In Novgorod, the Battle of the Ice, together with the Neva victory over the Swedes, was remembered in litanies in all Novgorod churches back in the 16th century.

However, even in the “Rhymed Chronicle,” the Battle of the Ice is clearly described as a defeat of the Germans, unlike Rakovor.

Memory of the battle

Movies

In 1938, Sergei Eisenstein shot the feature film “Alexander Nevsky”, in which the Battle of the Ice was filmed. The film is considered one of the most prominent representatives of historical films. It was he who largely shaped the modern viewer’s idea of the battle.
In 1992, the documentary film “In memory of the past and in the name of the future” was shot. The film tells about the creation of a monument to Alexander Nevsky for the 750th anniversary of the Battle of the Ice.
In 2009, jointly by Russian, Canadian and Japanese studios, the full-length anime film “First Squad” was shot, in which the Battle on the Ice plays a key role in the plot.

Music

The score for Eisenstein's film, composed by Sergei Prokofiev, is a symphonic suite dedicated to the events of the battle.
The rock band Aria on the album “Hero of Asphalt” (1987) released the song “ Ballad about an ancient Russian warrior", telling about the Battle of the Ice. This song has gone through many different arrangements and re-releases.

Literature

Poem by Konstantin Simonov “Battle on the Ice” (1938)

Monuments

Monument to the squads of Alexander Nevsky on the town of Sokolikha

Monument to the squads of Alexander Nevsky on Sokolikha in Pskov

Monument to Alexander Nevsky and Worship Cross

The bronze worship cross was cast in St. Petersburg at the expense of patrons of the Baltic Steel Group (A. V. Ostapenko). The prototype was the Novgorod Alekseevsky Cross. The author of the project is A. A. Seleznev. The bronze sign was cast under the direction of D. Gochiyaev by the foundry workers of JSC "NTTsKT", architects B. Kostygov and S. Kryukov. When implementing the project, fragments from the lost wooden cross by sculptor V. Reshchikov were used.

In philately and on coins

Due to the incorrect calculation of the date of the battle according to the new style, the Day of Military Glory of Russia - the Day of Victory of Russian soldiers of Prince Alexander Nevsky over the Crusaders (established by Federal Law No. 32-FZ of March 13, 1995 “On Days of Military Glory and Memorable Dates of Russia”) is celebrated April 18 instead of the correct new style April 12. The difference between the old (Julian) and new (Gregorian, first introduced in 1582) style in the 13th century would have been 7 days (counting from 5 April 1242), and the 13 day difference is only used for dates 1900-2100. Therefore, this day of military glory of Russia (April 18 according to the new style in the XX-XXI centuries) is actually celebrated according to its current corresponding April 5 according to the old style.

Due to the variability of the hydrography of Lake Peipus, historians for a long time It was not possible to determine exactly the place where the Battle of the Ice took place. Only thanks to long-term research carried out by an expedition of the Institute of Archeology of the USSR Academy of Sciences (under the leadership of G.N. Karaev), the location of the battle was established. The battle site is submerged in water in summer and is located approximately 400 meters from the island of Sigovec.

Notes

Literature

Lipitsky S. V. Ice battle. - M.: Military Publishing House, 1964. - 68 p. - (The heroic past of our Motherland).
Mansikka V.Y. Life of Alexander Nevsky: Analysis of editions and text. - St. Petersburg, 1913. - “Monuments of ancient writing.” - Vol. 180.
Life of Alexander Nevsky/Prep. text, translation and comm. V. I. Okhotnikova // Monuments of literature Ancient Rus': XIII century. - M.: Publishing house Khudozh. liters, 1981.
Begunov Yu. K. Monument of Russian literature of the 13th century: “The Tale of the Death of the Russian Land” - M.-L.: Nauka, 1965.
Pashuto V.T. Alexander Nevsky - M.: Young Guard, 1974. - 160 p. - Series “Life of Remarkable People”.
Karpov A. Yu. Alexander Nevsky - M.: Young Guard, 2010. - 352 p. - Series “Life of Remarkable People”.
Khitrov M. Holy Blessed Grand Duke Alexander Yaroslavovich Nevsky. Detailed biography. - Minsk: Panorama, 1991. - 288 p. - Reprint edition.
Klepinin N. A. Holy Blessed and Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky. - St. Petersburg: Aletheia, 2004. - 288 p. - Series “Slavic Library”.
Prince Alexander Nevsky and his era. Research and materials/Ed. Yu. K. Begunova and A. N. Kirpichnikov. - St. Petersburg: Dmitry Bulanin, 1995. - 214 p.
Fennell John. The crisis of medieval Rus'. 1200-1304 - M.: Progress, 1989. - 296 p.
Battle of the Ice 1242 Proceedings of a complex expedition to clarify the location of the Battle of the Ice / Rep. ed. G. N. Karaev. - M.-L.: Nauka, 1966. - 241 p.

Borders modern Russia historically associated with borders Russian Empire, which were influenced by certain events. And therefore, the significance of the Battle of the Ice is very great: thanks to it, the Teutonic Order forever abandoned serious claims to Russian lands. Although this did not protect our ancestors from the Golden Horde, it helped to defend, at least, the western borders, and showed people in difficult times that they were capable of winning victories.

However, before the Battle of the Ice occurred, it was preceded by other events that largely predetermined it. In particular, the Battle of the Neva, which clearly demonstrated the military leadership talent of the then young Prince Alexander. Therefore, it’s worth starting with it.

The Battle of the Neva itself is directly determined by the claims of both the Swedes and Novgorodians to the Karelian Isthmus and to the Finnish tribes. What was connected with the influence and with the advance of the crusaders to the west. Here historians differ in their assessments of what happened. Some believe that Alexander Nevsky stopped the expansion with his actions. Others disagree, believing that the significance of his victories was greatly exaggerated and that the crusaders actually had no real intention of advancing in earnest. So the Battle of the Neva and the Battle of the Ice still cause a lot of controversy. But it is worth returning to the first event.

So, the Battle of the Neva took place on July 15, 1240. It should be noted that the young Prince Alexander at that time was a very inexperienced commander; he participated in battles only with his father, Yaroslav. And this was, in fact, his first serious military test. Success was largely determined by the suddenness of the appearance of the prince along with his retinue. The Swedes, who landed at the mouth of the Neva, did not expect serious resistance. In addition, in the summer they experienced serious thirst, as a result, as many historians noted, they found themselves either drunk or hungover. A camp set up near the river meant the presence of tents, which turned out to be very easy to cut down, which is what the youth Savva did.

The timely warning of the Izhora elder Pelgusius, who monitored these lands and sent messengers to Alexander, thus came as a complete surprise to the Swedes. As a result, the Battle of the Neva ended in a real defeat for them. According to some reports, the Swedes loaded almost 3 ships with the bodies of the dead, while the Novgorodians killed about 20 people. It is worth noting that the battle began during the day and lasted until the evening; at night hostilities ceased, and in the morning the Swedes began to flee. No one pursued them: Alexander Nevsky did not see the need for this, in addition, he was afraid of increasing losses. Please note that he received his nickname precisely after this victory.

What happened between the Battle of the Neva and the Battle of the Ice?

After the battle on the Neva River took place, the Swedes abandoned their claims. But this did not mean that the crusaders stopped thinking about conquering Rus'. Do not forget in which year the described event took place: our ancestors already had problems with the Golden Horde. What's with feudal fragmentation significantly weakened the Slavs. Understanding the date is so important here because it allows you to relate some events to others.

Therefore, the Teutonic Order was not impressed by the defeat of the Swedes. The Danes and Germans decisively moved forward, captured Pskov, Izborsk, founded Koporye, where they decided to strengthen themselves, making it their fortpost. Even summary The Laurentian Chronicle, which tells about those events, makes it clear that the successes of the Order were significant.

At the same time, the boyars, who had considerable power in Novgorod, became alarmed about Alexander’s victory. They were afraid of his increasing power. As a result, the prince left Novgorod after a major quarrel with them. But already in 1242, the boyars called him back with his squad because of the Teutonic threat, especially since the enemy was approaching the Novgorodians closely.

How did the battle take place?

So, the famous battle on Lake Peipsi, the Battle of the Ice, took place in 1242 on April 5. Moreover, the battle was carefully prepared by the Russian prince. What makes it clear is the work of Konstantin Simonov dedicated to this event, which, although it cannot be called impeccable historical source In terms of authenticity, it's pretty well done.

In short, everything happened according to a certain pattern: the knights of the Order, in full heavy armor, acted as a typical wedge for themselves. Such a ramming attack was intended to demonstrate the full power of the enemy, sweep him away, sow panic and break resistance. Such tactics have repeatedly proven successful in the past. But Alexander Nevsky really prepared the Battle of the Ice in 1242 well. He studied the enemy’s weak points, so the archers were first waiting for the German “pig”; their main task was simply to lure out the knights. Which then came across heavily armed infantry with long pikes.

In fact, it was difficult to call what happened next anything other than a massacre. The knights could not stop, because otherwise the front ranks would be crushed by the back ones. It was not possible to break the wedge at all. Therefore, the horsemen could only move forward, hoping to break the infantry. But the central regiment was weak, but the strong ones were placed on the sides, contrary to the then established military tradition. In addition, another detachment was placed in an ambush. In addition, Alexander Nevsky perfectly studied the area where the Battle of the Ice took place, so his warriors were able to drive some of the knights to where the ice was very thin. As a result, many of them began to drown.

There is another important factor. He is also shown in “Alexander Nevsky,” a famous painting; maps and pictures also depict him. This is the stampede of the monster who was helping the Order when she realized that professional warriors were fighting against her. Speaking even briefly about the Battle of the Ice, one cannot help but note the excellent knowledge of the knights’ weapons and weak points. So, they were frankly helpless when they were pulled off their horses. And that is why the prince armed many of his warriors with special hooks, which made it possible to throw the crusaders to the ground. At the same time, the battle that took place turned out to be very cruel to the horses. To deprive the horsemen of this advantage, many injured and killed the animals.

But what were the results of the Battle of the Ice for both sides? Alexander Nevsky managed to repel claims to Rus' from the west and strengthen the borders for centuries to come. Which was of particular importance given how much the Slavs suffered from invasions from the east. In addition, the first battle in history took place where infantrymen defeated heavily armed horsemen in full armor in battle, demonstrating to the whole world that this was quite possible. And although the Battle of the Ice did not have a very large scale, from this point of view Alexander Nevsky demonstrated good talent as a commander. As a prince, he acquired a certain weight, they began to reckon with him.

As for the Order itself, it cannot be said that the defeat in question was critical. But 400 knights died on Lake Peipus, and about 50 were captured. So for its age, the Battle of the Ice still caused quite serious damage to the German and Danish knighthood. And for that year, this was not the only problem of the Order, which also faced the Galicia-Volyn and Lithuanian principalities.

Reasons for winning the battle

Alexander Nevsky won a convincing victory in the Battle of the Ice. Moreover, he forced the Teutonic Order to sign a peace treaty on his own terms. In this agreement, he forever renounced any claims to Russian lands. Since we were talking about spiritual brotherhood, which was also subordinate to the Pope, the Order could not break such an agreement without problems for itself. That is, even speaking briefly about the results of the Battle of the Ice, including diplomatic ones, one cannot fail to note that they were impressive. But let's return to the analysis of the battle.

Reasons for victory:

Well chosen place. Alexander's soldiers were lighter armed. Therefore, thin ice did not pose such a danger for them as for knights clad in full armor, many of whom simply drowned. In addition, the Novgorodians knew these places better.
Successful tactics. Alexander Nevsky was in complete control of the situation. He not only correctly used the advantages of the place, but also studied the weak points in the usual style of fighting, which the Teutonic knights themselves repeatedly demonstrated, starting from the classic “pig” and ending with their dependence on horses and heavy weapons.
Underestimation of the Russians by the enemy. The Teutonic Order was accustomed to success. By this time, Pskov and other lands had already been captured, and the knights did not encounter any serious resistance. The largest of the conquered cities was taken thanks to betrayal.

The battle being discussed was of great cultural significance. In addition to Simonov's story, several films were made based on it, including documentaries. This event was covered in many books, both fiction and biographical, dedicated to the personality of Alexander Nevsky. Many consider it extremely important that the victory occurred during the onset of the Tatar-Mongol yoke.

The Battle of the Ice is one of greatest battles V Russian history, during which Prince of Novgorod Alexander Nevsky repelled the invasion of the knights of the Livonian Order on Lake Peipsi. For many centuries, historians have debated the details of this battle. Some points remain not entirely clear, including exactly how the Battle of the Ice took place. The diagram and reconstruction of the details of this battle will allow us to reveal the mystery of the mysteries of history associated with the great battle.

Background to the conflict

Beginning in 1237, when he announced the beginning of the next crusade In the lands of the eastern Baltic, between the Russian principalities on the one hand, and Sweden, Denmark and the German Livonian Order on the other, there was constant tension, which from time to time escalated into hostilities.

So, in 1240, Swedish knights led by Earl Birger landed at the mouth of the Neva, but the Novgorod army under the control of Prince Alexander Nevsky defeated them in a decisive battle.

In the same year he undertook offensive operation to Russian lands. His troops took Izborsk and Pskov. Assessing the danger, in 1241 she called Alexander back to reign, although she only recently expelled him. The prince gathered a squad and moved against the Livonians. In March 1242, he managed to liberate Pskov. Alexander moved his troops to the possessions of the Order, towards the Bishopric of Dorpat, where the crusaders gathered significant forces. The parties prepared for a decisive battle.

The opponents met on April 5, 1242 on what was then still covered with ice. That is why the battle later acquired the name - Battle of the Ice. The lake at that time was frozen deep enough to support heavily armed warriors.

Strengths of the parties

The Russian army was of a rather scattered composition. But its backbone, undoubtedly, was the Novgorod squad. In addition, the army included the so-called “lower regiments”, which were brought by the boyars. The total number of the Russian squad is estimated by historians at 15-17 thousand people.

The Livonian army was also varied. Its fighting backbone consisted of heavily armed knights led by Master Andreas von Velven, who, however, did not take part in the battle itself. Also included in the army were Danish allies and the militia of the city of Dorpat, which included a significant number of Estonians. The total number of the Livonian army is estimated at 10-12 thousand people.

Progress of the battle

Historical sources have left us rather meager information about how the battle itself unfolded. The battle on the ice began when the archers of the Novgorod army came forward and covered the line of knights with a hail of arrows. But the latter managed, using a military formation called a “pig,” to crush the shooters and break the center of the Russian forces.

Seeing this situation, Alexander Nevsky ordered the Livonian troops to be surrounded from the flanks. The knights were captured in a pincer movement. Their wholesale extermination by the Russian squad began. The auxiliary troops of the order, seeing that their main forces were being defeated, fled. The Novgorod squad pursued the fleeing for more than seven kilometers. The battle ended in complete victory for the Russian forces.

This was the story of the Battle of the Ice.

Battle scheme

It is not without reason that the diagram below clearly demonstrates the military leadership gift of Alexander Nevsky and serves as an example of a well-executed military operation in Russian textbooks on military affairs.

On the map we clearly see the initial breakthrough of the Livonian army into the ranks of the Russian squad. It also shows the encirclement of the knights and the subsequent flight of the Order’s auxiliary forces, which ended the Battle of the Ice. The diagram allows you to build these events into a single chain and greatly facilitates the reconstruction of the events that took place during the battle.

Aftermath of the battle

After the Novgorod army won a complete victory over the forces of the crusaders, which was largely due to Alexander Nevsky, a peace agreement was signed in which the Livonian Order completely renounced its recent acquisitions on the territory of Russian lands. There was also an exchange of prisoners.

The defeat that the Order suffered in the Battle of the Ice was so serious that for ten years it licked its wounds and did not even think about a new invasion of Russian lands.

The victory of Alexander Nevsky is no less significant in the general historical context. After all, it was then that the fate of our lands was decided and the actual end was put to the aggression of the German crusaders in the eastern direction. Of course, even after this, the Order tried more than once to tear off a piece of Russian land, but never again did the invasion take on such a large-scale character.

Misconceptions and stereotypes associated with the battle

There is an idea that in many respects in the battle on Lake Peipus the Russian army was helped by the ice, which could not withstand the weight of the heavily armed German knights and began to fall under them. In fact, there is no historical confirmation of this fact. Moreover, according to the latest research, the weight of the equipment of the German knights and Russian knights participating in the battle was approximately equal.

German crusaders, in the minds of many people, which are primarily inspired by cinema, are heavily armed men-at-arms wearing helmets, often adorned with horns. In fact, the Order's charter prohibited the use of helmet decorations. So, in principle, the Livonians could not have any horns.

Results

Thus, we found out that one of the most important and significant battles in Russian history was the Battle of the Ice. The battle diagram allowed us to visually reproduce its course and determine main reason the defeat of the knights - an overestimation of their strength when they recklessly rushed to the attack.

Sources brought to us very scanty information about the Battle of the Ice. This contributed to the fact that the battle gradually became overgrown with a large number of myths and contradictory facts.

Mongols again

It is not entirely correct to call the Battle of Lake Peipus a victory of Russian squads over German knighthood, since the enemy, according to modern historians, was a coalition force that, in addition to the Germans, included Danish knights, Swedish mercenaries and a militia consisting of Estonians (Chud).

It is quite possible that the troops led by Alexander Nevsky were not exclusively Russian. The Polish historian of German origin, Reinhold Heidenstein (1556-1620), wrote that Alexander Nevsky was pushed into battle by the Mongol Khan Batu (Batu) and sent his detachment to help him.
This version has the right to life. The middle of the 13th century was marked by a confrontation between the Horde and Western European troops. Thus, in 1241, Batu’s troops defeated the Teutonic knights in the Battle of Legnica, and in 1269, Mongol troops helped the Novgorodians defend the city walls from the invasion of the crusaders.

Who went underwater?

In Russian historiography, one of the factors that contributed to the victory of Russian troops over the Teutonic and Livonian knights was the fragile spring ice and the bulky armor of the crusaders, which led to the massive flooding of the enemy. However, if you believe the historian Nikolai Karamzin, the winter that year was long and the spring ice remained strong.
However, it is difficult to determine how much ice could withstand a large number of warriors dressed in armor. Researcher Nikolai Chebotarev notes: “it is impossible to say who was heavier or lighter armed at the Battle of the Ice, because there was no uniform as such.”
Heavy plate armor appeared only in the 14th-15th centuries, and in the 13th century the main type of armor was chain mail, over which a leather shirt with steel plates could be worn. Based on this fact, historians suggest that the weight of the equipment of the Russian and order warriors was approximately the same and reached 20 kilograms. If we assume that the ice could not support the weight of a warrior in full equipment, then there should have been sunken ones on both sides.
It is interesting that in the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle and in the original edition of the Novgorod Chronicle there is no information that the knights fell through the ice - they were added only a century after the battle.
On Voronii Island, near which Cape Sigovets is located, the ice is quite weak due to the characteristics of the current. This gave rise to some researchers to suggest that the knights could fall through the ice precisely there when they crossed a dangerous area during their retreat.

Where was the massacre?

Researchers to this day cannot pinpoint the exact location where the Battle of the Ice took place. Novgorod sources, as well as historian Nikolai Kostomarov, say that the battle took place near the Raven Stone. But the stone itself was never found. According to some, it was high sandstone, washed away over time by the current, others claim that the stone is Crow Island.
Some researchers are inclined to believe that the massacre is not at all connected with the lake, since the accumulation of a large number of heavily armed warriors and cavalry would make it impossible to conduct a battle on the thin April ice.
In particular, these conclusions are based on the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle, which reports that “on both sides the dead fell on the grass.” This fact is supported by modern research using the latest equipment of the bottom of Lake Peipsi, during which no weapons or armor of the 13th century were found. Excavations also failed on the shore. However, this is not difficult to explain: armor and weapons were very valuable booty, and even damaged they could be quickly carried away.
However, back in Soviet times, an expedition group from the Institute of Archeology of the Academy of Sciences, led by Georgy Karaev, established the supposed site of the battle. According to researchers, this was a section of Teploe Lake, located 400 meters west of Cape Sigovets.

Number of parties

Soviet historians, determining the number of forces clashing on Lake Peipus, state that Alexander Nevsky’s troops numbered approximately 15-17 thousand people, and the number of German knights reached 10-12 thousand.
Modern researchers consider such figures to be clearly overestimated. In their opinion, the order could produce no more than 150 knights, who were joined by about 1.5 thousand knechts (soldiers) and 2 thousand militia. They were opposed by squads from Novgorod and Vladimir in the amount of 4-5 thousand soldiers.
The true balance of forces is quite difficult to determine, since the number of German knights is not indicated in the chronicles. But they can be counted by the number of castles in the Baltic states, which, according to historians, in the middle of the 13th century there were no more than 90.
Each castle was owned by one knight, who could take from 20 to 100 people from mercenaries and servants on a campaign. In this case, the maximum number of soldiers, excluding the militia, could not exceed 9 thousand people. But, most likely, the real numbers are much more modest, since some of the knights died in the Battle of Legnica a year before.
Modern historians can say only one thing with confidence: none of the opposing sides had significant superiority. Perhaps Lev Gumilyov was right when he assumed that the Russians and Teutons collected 4 thousand soldiers each.