Biography
Born Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte on April 20, 1808 in Paris. His father Louis Bonaparte is the King of Holland, the younger brother of Napoleon I. His mother is Hortense Beauharnais, daughter from the first marriage of Empress Josephine, the first wife of Napoleon I.
After the Bonapartes were expelled from France in 1815, Louis Napoleon - as he was usually called until 1852 - studied mainly with private teachers in Italy, Switzerland and Germany, and also received military training in the Swiss army. In 1831 he took part in the defeated revolution in the Papal State. In 1832, after the death of the Duke of Reichstadt, son of Napoleon I, he became the main contender for the throne of France through the Bonapartes and devoted himself to winning the throne.
On October 31, 1836, in Strasbourg, he attempted a military rebellion against King Louis Philippe, but was arrested and expelled from France. He continued to conduct propaganda from London, where he published the book Napoleonic Ideas (Ides napoloniennes, 1840), in which he argued that the Bonapartes had no desire for conquest and tyranny. “The Napoleonic idea,” he wrote, “is not a military idea, but a social, industrial, commercial and humanitarian one,” aimed at supporting the material well-being of the population. On August 6, 1840, Louis Napoleon landed in Boulogne, repeating his attempt to seize power, but the troops he was counting on refused to support him. He was arrested, convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment in the Gam fortress. Here Napoleon III continued to write, promoting his policies. Particularly famous was his book Overcoming Pauperism (Extinction du pauprisme, 1844), which increased the number of his supporters among the people, who were increasingly imbued with the Napoleonic legend. In 1846, with the help of a brilliant disguise, Louis Napoleon escaped from prison and returned to England.
February Revolution 1848 in France finally gave him the long-awaited chance. In June 1848, four departments elected him to the Legislative Assembly, and in December, by a majority vote, he was elected president of the republic for a term of 4 years. He received 5,434,236 votes, and his opponent - 1,498,107. Playing on the growing disillusionment with parliamentary rule and the growing fear of a “red” uprising, on December 2, 1851, he carried out a coup d’etat, arrested about 20,000 of his opponents, and dissolved the Legislative Assembly and appealed to the people with a request to grant him virtually dictatorial powers. A plebiscite on December 20, 1851 confirmed him as president for a term of 10 years. A year later, a new plebiscite proclaimed him Napoleon III, Emperor of France. (Napoleon I's son, who never reigned, was considered Napoleon II.)
The marriage in 1853 of the new emperor to Eugenia Montijo, a beautiful Spaniard, revived the glory of the French court - wasteful and outwardly extravagant. Napoleon had an only son, Prince Louis-Napoleon, who was born in 1856 and died in 1879, leaving no heirs.
Napoleon III introduced an authoritarian regime, seized all key positions of power, introduced censorship, turned the Legislative Assembly into a registering body that did not have the right to propose or repeal laws, and launched a persecution of the opposition. For some time this regime held quite firmly. The peasants, who provided Napoleon with an overwhelming majority of votes, cared little about Parisian politicians; they were much more concerned about their own material interests. As stated, they wore their hearts on the left and their pockets on the right. Napoleon provided them with subsidies and benefits, and they paid him with loyalty.
The Emperor established banks, supported agricultural development by creating model farms and land reclamation, stimulated the construction of railways and communications, encouraged the construction of the Suez Canal, introduced a free trade system to develop and modernize industry, and launched large-scale public works - most notably the reconstruction of Paris under the leadership of Baron Georges Haussmann.
However, dissatisfaction with his despotism grew among the middle bourgeoisie and the working class. Napoleon could not help but see this and, in order to prevent events, made concessions by issuing decrees on November 24, 1860 and January 19, 1867. On January 2, 1870, Napoleon III transferred most of his powers to the ministry under the leadership of the liberal leader Emile Olivier. In a plebiscite on May 8, 1870, this liberal regime received support from 7,300,000 votes, and only 1,500,000 voted against.
In foreign policy Napoleon III suffered constant defeats. He promised peace upon his rise to power, but soon became embroiled in the Crimean War with Russia (1854-1856). Victory in this war raised the country's prestige. In 1859, in alliance with the kingdom of Sardinia, Napoleon declared war on Austria in order to liberate Italy. In exchange for Sardinia's support, France received Nice and Savoy. But the unexpected peace with Austria angered the Italians, the annexations displeased the British, and the Italians' seizure of all papal possessions (except Rome) turned Catholics in France against him.
In 1861-1866, Napoleon sent troops to Mexico and placed the Austrian Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg on the throne. This costly adventure turned out to be a complete failure, and the captured Maximilian was executed by the Mexicans in 1867. Napoleon's lukewarm protest against the suppression of the uprising in Poland (1863-1864) turned both Russians and Poles against him. By the end of Napoleon's reign, France had no reliable allies left.
When French public opinion became alarmed by Prussia's conquests and growing power, Napoleon demanded territorial compensation on the borders of the Rhine (1867-1868), then succumbed to Prussian intrigues in Spain and finally played into Bismarck's hands by declaring war on Prussia on July 19, 1870. Napoleon finally undermined his reputation by personally leading the army, although his illness did not even allow him to sit in the saddle. On September 2, 1870, he surrendered at Sedan, and two days later he was overthrown during the revolution in Paris.
After peace was concluded in 1871, Napoleon was released from captivity and departed with his son and wife for England. Napoleon died at Chislehurst on January 9, 1873.
Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, also known as Louis Napoleon Bonaparte and subsequently Napoleon III (born April 20, 1808 - death January 9, 1873) - the first president of the French Republic, Emperor of France from December 2, 1852 to September 4 1870
Origin
Napoleon III spent the first years of his life in Holland, where his father Louis Napoleon ruled. After the restoration, he and his mother settled in Constanta. Despite his modest position, his relationship with the Bonaparte family and close relationship with the great emperor made Louis a notable figure.
Youth
1830 - he enters secret society Carbonari and vows to devote all his strength to the struggle for the unity and liberation of Italy. 1831 - he takes part in the movement of Italian youth against Pope Gregory XVI. After the suppression of the speech, he had to go into hiding. 1832 - mother and son arrived in France and were favorably received there by King Louis Philippe. In July, after the death of Napoleon I's son (known as Napoleon II), Louis Napoleon became the chief heir to the Bonaparte dynastic tradition.
Strasbourg conspiracy
Soon, Louis Napoleon was able to establish acquaintances with several officers of the 4th artillery regiment, stationed in Strasbourg. With the help of 15 like-minded people, he decided to rebel the soldiers of the Strasbourg garrison and, with their help, seize the throne. At first, this risky venture was a success. 1836, October 30 - Colonel Vaudray gathered his regiment in the courtyard of the barracks and introduced Napoleon to the soldiers. The soldiers greeted him with enthusiastic shouts, but other regiments refused to support the rebels. Napoleon was soon arrested and sent under escort to Paris.
Already in those days he could have lost his head for his adventure. But there was so much naivety and frivolity in his action that the king treated him very condescendingly. Louis Philippe gave him 15 thousand francs and sent him to New York. He, however, spent no more than a year in America, and soon returned to Switzerland, and then moved to London. The only unusual thing about this young man was his firm belief in his destiny and in the fact that sooner or later he would become the French emperor.
Bulonia. Conclusion. Escape
1840 - at the request of Louis Philippe, the ashes were solemnly buried in Paris, in the Invalides. The French paid tribute to the late emperor as a national hero. Louis Napoleon took advantage of this event and again attempted to seize power. On August 6, he, along with 16 associates, landed in Boulogne and tried to raise an uprising in the 42nd Infantry Regiment. His actions were exactly the same as 4 years ago in Strasbourg. Soon they were all arrested. This time, King Louis Philippe was not so merciful towards his opponent: on October 6, the House of Peers sentenced Louis Napoleon to life imprisonment in the fortress of Gam.
He spent six years in prison. 1846, May - alterations began in the fortress. Workers entered and exited freely. Napoleon spent several days studying the workers' habits and their gait. Afterwards, having shaved off his mustache and beard, he changed into a work blouse and left the fortress without any difficulty. A few hours later he was already in Belgium, and then took refuge in England.
Revolution of 1848
After the February Revolution of 1848, the future emperor came to Paris, was expelled a few days later by the Provisional Government and finally returned only in September, after the bloody July events, with a completely different state of mind: by this time the workers had lost faith in Republican politicians, and the bourgeoisie loudly demanded order and “strong government.” So, everything contributed to the success of the Bonapartists.
President of the French Republic
Louis Napoleon was able to win his first victory on September 18 during by-elections to the National Assembly, when he defeated his rivals in six departments of the province and in Paris, and in the capital with an advantage of more than 100 thousand votes. This success inspired Napoleon to take part in a bigger game. According to the constitution of 1848, all legislative power was concentrated in the National Assembly, and the executive power was placed in the hands of the president, elected by universal, direct vote for a term of 4 years. The army was subordinate to him, in which he had the right to appoint all generals, and the government, where he was free to change ministers. In October, he announced his intention to take part in the presidential elections. The most serious of his opponents was General Cavaignac.
In the elections of December 10, Louis Bonaparte received 5 million 400 thousand votes, while Cavaignac received only 1 million 400 thousand. Upon Louis Bonaparte taking office, it was discovered that there was no agreement between him and the Assembly. Particularly acute contradictions appeared in the summer of 1849, when, against the will of the deputies, the president sent French troops to Rome to help the pope and to fight the revolution. In subsequent years, relations between the two branches of government remained extremely tense.
Last imperial couple France
Coup d'etat
1851, winter - supporters of the president began to prepare a coup d'etat. It began late in the evening of December 1, when gendarmes occupied the state printing house. By morning, many proclamations were printed announcing that the Legislative Assembly, this nest of conspiracies, was declared dissolved by the President, that the right of elections without any qualifications was restored and a new constitution was proposed. Soon all the political figures who had the opportunity to interfere with Bonaparte with their authority were arrested. A plebiscite held on December 14 and 21 showed that 7 million French people voted for the president and only 700 thousand were against.
Emperor of France
The place of the Legislative Assembly was taken by the Legislative Corps, while the deputies did not have legislative initiative; they had very limited influence on the formation of the budget. The legislative body could not even be an open platform, since the debates were not published in the press. The Senate took a much greater part in governing the state, but its members were directly or indirectly appointed by the president. The regime that was established after the coup on December 2 was the first step towards a monarchy.
Throughout 1852 there was intense agitation for the restoration of the empire. On November 21, in a national referendum, 7.8 million French people voted for the empire, 253 thousand were against, and about 2 million abstained. On December 2, imperial dignity was restored to the head of state, and former president took the name Napoleon III.
Board. Domestic policy
In the first years of the empire, political life in France seemed to freeze. The chambers were powerless. There was no formal censorship, but the publication of newspapers and magazines turned out to be extremely difficult. However, wide opportunities were created in the economic sphere. Napoleon was a man of progress. He wanted to play the role of an enlightened despot and ensure prosperity for the people. The removal of restrictions on the activities of joint stock capital, the establishment of banks in 1852, the conclusion of a free trade agreement with Great Britain, the reconstruction of Paris, the construction of the Suez Canal, the holding of World Exhibitions, the massive construction of railways - all this and much more contributed to the strengthening of business activity and accelerating industrialization. Trade turnover increased and expanded. The government promoted the establishment of cheap housing for workers in large industrial centers and made attempts to organize medical care in cities and villages.
Foreign policy
The emperor also achieved brilliant success in the field of foreign policy. His reign was accompanied by a series of large and small wars. In close alliance with Great Britain, he took on the role of defender of Turkey against Russia, which led in 1855 to the outbreak of the difficult Crimean War. Although victory in it cost the French enormous sacrifices and did not bring any gains, it was able to give new luster and greatness to the emperor himself.
The Paris Congress of 1856, in which representatives of leading European countries took part, showed that France again became the first on the continent great power. In Vienna and Berlin they began to listen with attention to every word from Paris. Russian influence in Central and Southeastern Europe weakened. Napoleon's intervention in Italian affairs had even more important consequences for France and all of Europe. 1859, February - when Austria started a war against Sardinia, French troops came to the aid of the Italians. In June the Austrians were defeated at Magenta and Solferino. In November peace was signed in Zurich. Under its terms, Lombardy joined the Sardinian kingdom, and Nice and Savoy went to France.
The last years of the emperor's reign were marked by reforms, which he had to decide on due to the rise of the liberal movement. 1867 - Freedom of the press and assembly was restored. 1869 - the emperor submitted to the Senate a draft of a new constitution, which significantly expanded the rights of representative bodies: the Legislative Corps received the right to legislative initiative, discuss and vote on bills and the budget. The ministries were subject to the control of the chambers. 1870, May - a popular vote by a majority of votes approved the new constitution. Thus, the military regime of the empire gradually began to transform into a constitutional monarchy of the classical type. In essence, Napoleon succeeded in what Charles X and Louis Philippe had given up in their time - reforming the regime in accordance with the spirit of the times and the demands of the liberal opposition. However, the fate of his reign still turned out to be just as deplorable.
Napoleon III captured by Bismarck in (1870)
War, captivity and deposition
1870, July - the Spanish Cortes offered the crown to the Crown Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. The Emperor announced his sharp protest on this score. The Prussian government showed intractability, and on July 15 Napoleon declared war on Prussia. Deliberately provoking a conflict, Napoleon counted on a rapid invasion of the French army into Germany even before the completion of mobilization in Prussia. This would give him the opportunity to isolate the North German Confederation from the South German states. But when the emperor arrived in Metz on July 28, he discovered that his army numbered only 100 thousand people. Mobilization proceeded extremely slowly, chaos reigned on the railways, and there was a shortage of ammunition, equipment, and ammunition.
Prussia managed to complete mobilization before France. At the beginning of August, the Prussian army crossed the border. The French were largely inferior to the enemy, not only in numbers, but also in combat effectiveness. Having won the border battles, the Prussians launched an attack on Metz and Nancy. One of the French armies retreated to Metz and was surrounded here; the other was defeated on August 30 near Beaumont, after which it was thrown back to Sedan. On September 1, at a military council, the French command admitted that further resistance was useless, and it was decided to surrender Sedan to the enemy. Then the emperor sent his adjutant to King William I. “Since I was unable to die in the midst of my army,” he wrote, “I can only hand over my sword to Your Majesty.”
William accepted Napoleon's surrender with chivalrous generosity. Having expressed his sympathy to the emperor at a personal meeting, he offered him Wilhelmhege Castle, near Kassel, for residence. As soon as the news of the Sedan disaster arrived in Paris, the revolution began here. The second empire was overthrown and a republic was proclaimed in its place.
Death of the Emperor
1871, March - the deposed monarch was allowed to leave for England. Together with the Empress and the young prince, he settled in Cadman House near London. Since he had almost no wealth abroad, the family's life was rather modest. At the end of 1872, the deposed emperor's kidney disease worsened. At the beginning of January 1873, Napoleon underwent surgery. Doctors tried to crush the stone in the bladder, but the disintegration of the kidneys had gone so far that the patient began to develop uremia. On the morning of January 9, he died.
(Charles-Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte) (1808–1873), Emperor of France 1852–1870. Son of Louis Bonaparte, brother Napoleon I and the King of Holland (1806–1810), and Hortense Beauharnais, daughter of the French Empress Josephine. Born in Paris on April 20, 1808. After the fall of the Empire (1815) and his mother’s expulsion from France, he lived with her in Geneva, Aix (Savoie), Augsburg, and from 1824 - in Arenenberg Castle (Switzerland); received home education. He underwent military training in the Swiss army, rising to the rank of artillery captain. Infiltrated by left-wing views; had connections with the Italian Carbonari. In February-March 1831 he took part in a failed rebellion in Romagna against papal authority.
After the death of the Duke of Reichstadt (Napoleon II) in 1832, he became the head of the house of Bonaparte. He outlined his project for a democratic empire in his work political dreams(Reveries politiques). On October 30, 1836 he tried to organize a putsch of two artillery regiments in Strasbourg against the regime Louis Philippe I, but was arrested and deported to the United States. In 1837 he returned to Europe. In 1838 he published a treatise in London Napoleonic ideas(Ideas napoleoniennes), where he presented the theory of Bonapartism - a synthesis of order and revolution, socialism and economic prosperity, liberalism and strong government. On August 6, 1840, he attempted to raise the garrison of Boulogne to revolt, but was captured and sentenced to life imprisonment. He served his sentence in Ama (dept. Somme). On May 25, 1846, disguised as a mason, he escaped from prison and took refuge in England.
After the fall of the July Monarchy (February Revolution of 1848), he returned to his homeland (April 25), but was expelled from the country by the Provisional Government. nominated in absentia as a candidate in the by-elections to the Constituent Assembly on June 4, 1848; won in four departments, but his election was canceled. In September he came to Paris again and, as a result of by-elections on September 17, became a deputy of the Constituent Assembly. With the support of the “Party of Order” (Legitimists, Orléanists, Catholics), he was elected President of the Republic on December 10, receiving approx. 5.5 million votes out of 7.5 million.
In the first period of his presidency (until June 1849) he was a faithful instrument of the “party of order”; fought against the Republican majority of the Constituent Assembly. On December 21, 1848 he appointed Orléanist O. Barrot as prime minister; On December 26, he transferred command of the Paris National Guard and the troops of the 1st (capital) military district to the monarchist General N.-E. Changarnier. On January 29, 1849, he disbanded the pro-republican Mobile Guard. In April 1849, against the will of the Constituent Assembly, he organized a military expedition against the Roman Republic with the aim of restoring papal power.
After the victory of the clerical-monarchist coalition in the elections to the Legislative Assembly on May 13, 1849 and the suppression of anti-government protests of left-wing Republicans on June 13, he set a course for liberation from the tutelage of the “party of order” and the creation of a strong Bonapartist party (“December 10 Society”). Tried to pursue an independent foreign policy. In August 1849 he demanded from Pius IX the implementation of liberal reforms in the Papal State, which caused sharp discontent of both the pope and the clerical-monarchist majority of the Assembly. Taking advantage of O. Barro’s refusal to submit a number of presidential initiatives to the Assembly for consideration (increasing the president’s civil list, returning to France Bourbons and Orleans, an amnesty for participants in the June Uprising of 1848), dismissed his government on November 1, 1849 and appointed a cabinet from his personal adherents.
Intending to split the “party of order” and win over Catholic Church, began to actively flirt with the clerics. He contributed to the implementation of the law of A.-P. Fallu of March 16, 1850 (rejection of the state monopoly on education) and did not interfere with the adoption of the law of L.-V. on May 31. de Broglie on the restriction of voting rights.
He took the initiative to revise the Constitution of 1848, which prohibited the re-election of the president for new term. To promote this idea, he made a trip around the country in August-September 1850. In an effort to establish control over the troops stationed in the capital, in January 1851 he replaced General N.-E. Changarnier with his protege, provoking a conflict with the Legislative Assembly. In February 1851, deputies rejected his demand to increase the presidential civil list, and in July - a proposal to change the Constitution.
On December 2, 1851 he carried out a coup d'etat; dissolved the Legislative Assembly, arrested the leaders of the monarchical and republican opposition and brutally suppressed all attempts at resistance. According to the new constitution, approved in a plebiscite on December 20–21, he received extremely broad powers - all the executive power and part of the legislative power (exclusive right of legislative initiative); he was responsible only to the people, to whom he could appeal directly by plebiscite. In fact, he liquidated the National Guard (January 11, 1852), established strict control over the press and public associations(February 17), abolished the autonomy of universities (March 10). Having won the referendum (November 1852) on the issue of restoring the imperial form of government (7.8 million versus 250 thousand), he proclaimed himself Emperor Napoleon III (Second Empire) on December 2, 1852.
In 1852–1860, the authoritarian regime of Napoleon III remained quite strong; he relied on the support of the army, the peasantry, business circles and the church. The opposition was weak and had virtually no legal opportunities for political activity. Parliament (Legislative Corps) had extremely limited competence (simple registration of laws without the right to introduce and discuss them).
During the 1850s, the regime achieved significant success in both domestic and foreign policy. The development of industry and banking, the construction of railways, and financial assistance were provided to large and small landowners. In 1853, under the leadership of the Parisian prefect E.-J. Haussmann, a large-scale reconstruction of the capital began. In 1855 Paris became the site of the World Exhibition.
In 1853 France captured the island. New Caledonia; in 1854 received a concession for construction Suez Canal(completed in 1869) and began the conquest of Senegal. Victory over Russia in Crimean War 1853–1856 raised her authority in Europe. As a result of the victory in the Austro-Franco-Sardinian War of 1859, France acquired Savoy and Nice (Treaty of Turin March 24, 1860). After the Second Opium War of 1856–1860, it received broad trade privileges in China (Beijing Convention of October 25, 1860); in 1858 she began the conquest of South Vietnam (Cochin China), completing it in 1867; in 1860 she undertook a military expedition to Syria (under the pretext of protecting local Christians), significantly strengthening her position in the Eastern Mediterranean.
However, from the beginning of the 1860s, the situation of the Second Empire became more complicated. Large government spending led to a sharp increase in the budget deficit and public debt. The abolition of protectionist duties (Anglo-French trade agreement on January 23, 1860) caused indignation in industrial circles. The alliance with Piedmont, which led the unification of Italy, worsened relations with the papacy and with the influential clerical party in France. In an effort to expand the social base of the regime, Napoleon III granted the Legislative Corps the right to discuss the emperor's speech from the throne on November 24, 1860, which only contributed to the strengthening of the opposition. Discontent was also caused by France's participation in the Mexican adventure of 1862–1867 (an attempt to create a Mexican empire led by the Austrian Archduke Maximilian). The united opponents of the regime (clerics, legitimists, Orleanists, protectionists, democrats) achieved significant success in the elections to the Legislative Corps on May 31 - June 1, 1863, collecting 2 million votes. An influential constitutional opposition formed in the Legislative Corps under the leadership of E. Olivier, which advocated political liberalization.
In 1866–1867, France suffered a series of diplomatic and military failures: it was unable to prevent the unification of Germany under the auspices of Prussia, and the Mexican adventure ended in complete collapse. The decline in the prestige of the Empire forced Napoleon III to make concessions to the opposition: on January 19, 1867, he granted deputies the right of interpellation (request to the government), on May 11, 1868, he abolished preliminary censorship of the press, and on June 6, 1868, he partially allowed public meetings. After the major success of the opposition, especially the Republicans, in the elections of May 23–24, 1869 (40% of the vote), the right of legislative initiative was returned to deputies and the principle of ministerial responsibility to parliament was restored (September 8, 1869); On December 28, he instructed E. Olivier to form a moderate-liberal government. In a referendum on May 8, 1870, the French approved (7.36 million in favor and 1.57 million against) the establishment of a constitutional monarchy while maintaining the right of direct appeal of the emperor to the people through a plebiscite.
The nomination of the Prussian Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen to the vacant Spanish throne in June 1870 provoked a war between France and Prussia (July 19, 1870). On July 28, Napoleon III arrived at the theater of war. After unsuccessful battles for the French near Metz in mid-August, he joined the Chalons army of Marshal M.-E. MacMahon, which on September 1 was surrounded near Sedan and capitulated on September 2. He was captured and imprisoned in Wilhelmshehe Castle. As a result of the uprising in Paris on September 4, 1870, the Second Empire fell; On March 1, 1871, the National Assembly in Bordeaux deposed Napoleon III. After the conclusion of the preliminary Franco-Prussian peace treaty in March 1871, he was released and left for England. He lived in Chislehurst near London, where he died on January 9, 1873.
Ivan Krivushin
Napoleon III Bonaparte (French Napoleon III Bonaparte, full name Charles Louis Napoleon (French Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte); April 20, 1808 - January 9, 1873) - President of the French Republic from December 20, 1848 to December 1, 1852, Emperor of the French from 1 December 1852 to September 4, 1870 (from September 2, 1870 he was in captivity).
The nephew of Napoleon I, after a series of conspiracies to seize power, came to it peacefully as President of the Republic (1848). Having carried out a coup in 1851 and eliminated legislative power, through “direct democracy” (plebiscite), he established an authoritarian police regime and a year later proclaimed himself emperor of the Second Empire.
After ten years of fairly tight control, the Second Empire, which became the embodiment of the ideology of Bonapartism, moved to some democratization (1860s), which was accompanied by the development of the French economy and industry. A few months after the adoption of the liberal constitution of 1870, which returned the rights to parliament, Napoleon’s rule was put to an end by the Franco-Prussian War, during which the emperor was captured by the Germans and never returned to France. Napoleon III was last monarch France.
Received the name Charles Louis Napoleon at birth. Baptized on November 4, 1810 in the chapel of the Saint-Cloud Palace. He hardly knew his father, since the forced marriage of his parents was unhappy and his mother lived in constant separation from her husband; three years after the birth of Louis Napoleon, she gave birth to an illegitimate son, Charles de Morny (whose father was Talleyrand's illegitimate son).
Louis Napoleon himself was recognized as the father, although later, in literature hostile to him (by the way, V. Hugo), doubts were expressed about the legality of his birth, and not without factual grounds. Brought up in the splendor of the court of Napoleon I, under the influence of his mother, Louis Napoleon from childhood showed as passionate and as romantic adoration of his uncle as his mother.
By nature he was a kind man, soft and meek, although occasionally hot-tempered; was distinguished by his generosity. All his instincts and feelings were outweighed by his fanatical faith in his star and devotion to the “Napoleonic ideas” that were the guiding ideas of his life. A passionate man and at the same time full of self-control (in the words of V. Hugo, the Dutchman curbed the Corsican in him), from his youth he strove for one cherished goal, confidently and firmly clearing the way to it and without hesitation in the choice of means.
Louis Napoleon spent his entire youth, starting in 1814, in wandering, which, however, was not associated with material deprivation, since his mother managed to accumulate a huge fortune.
Queen Hortense could not remain in France after the fall of the emperor, despite the personal sympathy of Alexander I for her. She was also expelled from the German states and therefore, having changed several places of residence, she bought herself the castle of Arenenberg, in the Swiss canton of Thurgau, on the shores of Lake Constance, where she settled with her two sons.
Louis Napoleon, during these wanderings, could not obtain systematic school education, he briefly attended the gymnasium in Augsburg. His personal tutors (besides his mother) were Abbot Bertrand and Lebas, the son of a terrorist. In Switzerland, Louis Napoleon entered military service and was an artillery captain. The result of his study of military affairs was his brochure: “Considerations politiques et militaires sur la Suisse” (P., 1833) and the book: “Manuel d’artillerie” (P., 1836; both works are reprinted in the collected works of his works).
In 1830-31 Louis Napoleon, together with his older brother, Napoleon-Louis, took part in the conspiracy of the Modena revolutionary Ciro Menotti and in the expedition to Romagna; The purpose of the expedition was to liberate Rome from the temporal power of the popes. After the failure of the expedition, during which his older brother died, Louis Napoleon managed to escape with an English passport across Italy to France, from where he was immediately expelled.
In 1832, the Duke of Reichstadt died, and the role of representative of Napoleonic ideas and claims passed to Louis Napoleon. In 1832, he announced this with the pamphlet “Reveries politiques,” which, like the pamphlet: “Des idees Napoleoniennes” (P., 1839), best expresses the ideals and aspirations of the young Napoleon.
“If the Rhine,” he says, “were a sea, if virtue were the only incentive human activity“If merit alone paved the way to power, I would strive for a republic.” In reality, this is not the case - and therefore Louis Napoleon prefers a monarchical form, which, at the same time, would implement republican principles. The people, the legislative body, the emperor - these are the three powers that should exist in the state.
“The people have the right of election and the right of sanctions, the legislative body has the right to discuss laws, the emperor has the executive power. The country will be happy when harmony prevails between these three powers... Harmony between the government and the people exists in two cases: either the people are governed by the will of one, or one governs by the will of the people.
In the first case it is despotism, in the second it is freedom.” The government of Louis Philippe I did not attach serious importance to the young contender for power, but the enemies of the government, both from the republican (Lafayette, Armand Carrel, later Georges Sand) and from the legitimist camp (Chateaubriand), believed in the personal honesty and patriotism of Louis Napoleon or hoping to use it to overthrow the existing government, they inflated its importance and spread its fame.
In 1836, Louis Napoleon made a romantic and reckless attempt to seize power. With the help of his loyal supporter, the former officer Persigny, he organized a conspiracy in Strasbourg, to which he attracted several officers, including Colonel Vaudre, who commanded one of the artillery regiments of the Strasbourg garrison.
On October 30, Louis Napoleon, who had arrived in Strasbourg the day before, appeared at the regiment's barracks in a suit reminiscent of Napoleon I's, with a historical cocked hat on his head; he was accompanied by a retinue of conspirators who carried the imperial eagle. Vaudray was waiting for him at the head of the soldiers to whom he had just distributed money.
Seeing Louis Napoleon, Vaudreis exclaimed that a revolution had broken out in France, Louis Philippe I had been deposed and power should pass to the heir of the great emperor, whom Vaudreis named Napoleon II. The soldiers greeted the applicant with exclamations: “Long live the emperor!” In another regiment, soldiers insufficiently treated by the conspirators arrested Louis Napoleon and his supporters. Louis Philippe I released him from prison, limiting himself to deporting him to America.
The participants in the conspiracy were brought to trial, but, in view of the release of the main culprit, as well as in view of the humiliating letter read at the trial, in which Louis Napoleon repented of his crime, praised the generosity and mercy of the king and asked for mercy for his supporters, the court could only justify them all.
In 1837, Louis Napoleon returned from America to Europe and settled in Switzerland, which he, at the request of the French government, was soon forced to leave, and moved to England.
In 1840, when the government of Louis Philippe I, with its decision to transport the body of Napoleon I to France, itself gave a new impetus to the spread of the Napoleonic cult, Louis Napoleon considered it timely to repeat the attempt to seize power.
He hired a steamer, organized an expedition in London and, having attracted several officers of the Boulogne garrison to his side, landed in Boulogne on August 6, 1840.
Proclamations were distributed throughout the city in which the government was accused of a sharp increase in taxes, of ruining the people, of a ridiculous African war, of despotism and a promise was made that Louis Napoleon would “rely solely on the will and interests of the people and create an unshakable building; without exposing France to the accidents of war, he will give her lasting peace.”
Not limited to a suit, a hat and the usual signs of imperial dignity, Louis Napoleon had with him a tamed eagle, which, released at a certain moment, was supposed to soar above his head.
But this moment did not come, since the second attempt ended even worse than the first. The soldiers of the first regiment, to whom Louis Napoleon introduced himself, arrested him and his supporters, and Louis Napoleon, during the confrontation, shot at one of the soldiers.
The conspirators were tried by the House of Peers; Among the defenders were Berrier, Marie, Jules Favre. The peers, who were extremely harsh towards ordinary revolutionaries, were very lenient towards Louis Napoleon and his supporters and sentenced Louis Napoleon to a punishment that did not exist in the French code, namely life imprisonment without restriction of rights.
Louis Napoleon was imprisoned in the Gam fortress, where he spent 6 years. He enjoyed very considerable freedom there: he received friends, wrote articles, published books.
Exaggerated by helpful journalists, the sufferings of the Gama prisoner attracted numerous friends to his side; At this time, several press organs emerged with the express purpose of promoting his ideas. His greatest service was rendered by the Progres du Pas-de-Calais, whose editor, the sincere Republican De Georges, believed that the mistakes of Louis Napoleon were atoned for by his sufferings and that “he is no longer a pretender, but a member of our party, a fighter for our banner "
Louis Napoleon himself wrote a lot in this magazine. During his imprisonment, Louis Napoleon significantly expanded his insufficiently systematic education. His main works published during this time were the treatise “Analyse de la question des sucres” (Paris, 1842) and the brochure “Extinction du pauperisme” (P., 1844).
This latter contains a criticism of economic relations that is not without seriousness, leading to the fact that “remuneration for labor depends on chance and arbitrariness... The working class owns nothing; he must be made an owner.”
To this end, Louis Napoleon proposes a rather fantastic, although supported by statistical tables, plan for organizing numerous farms at the expense of the state on which proletarians would be settled. The pamphlet, compiled under the undoubted influence of Louis Blanc, aroused sympathy for N. among many socialists. In 1846, Louis Napoleon, disguised as a worker, with a board on his shoulder, managed, with the help of friends, to escape from the fortress and move to England.
After the revolution of February 24, 1848, Louis Napoleon hurried to Paris, but the provisional government ordered him to leave France. In May 1848, he was elected deputy in four departments, including the Seine department; but renounced his powers. In September, re-elected in five departments, he joined the constituent assembly.
In his speeches and messages of this period he stated that he could only present his claims as heir to the empire in the presence of the king; but in view of the republic, based on the will of the entire French people, he renounces these claims and, as a faithful servant of the people, is a sincere and ardent republican.
His election manifesto, without making a single definite promise, tried with vague phrases to arouse hopes and sympathy among all parties; he promised “after four years to transfer to his successor power - firm, freedom - inviolable, progress - realized in practice,” he spoke about the patronage of religion, family, property, about freedom of religion and teaching, about economy, about measures in favor of workers.
On December 10th the voting took place; Louis Napoleon received 5,430,000 votes (75%), against 1,450,000 received by General Cavaignac and 440,000 by the other candidates. These were the first direct (although not universal, due to electoral qualifications and the lack of women's voting rights) elections of the head of the French state. The next direct presidential elections were held only in 1965.
On December 20, he took the oath of allegiance to the republic and the constitution and took power into his own hands. The first president of France, Bonaparte is still the youngest of all elected to this post: he took office at the age of 40.
In his inauguration speech, full of vague phrases, he made one clear and definite promise: “to consider as enemies of the fatherland all those who attempt to change through illegal means what has been established by all of France.”
This statement was far from the only one of its kind. In a message to the Chamber of Deputies on November 12, 1850, Napoleon declared his intention to be unswervingly faithful to the constitution.
IN different speeches and in his messages he insisted that he had never given and would never give a reason not to believe his word. In a ministerial council, he once directly stated that a government official who would decide to violate the constitution would be a “dishonest person.”
In a speech he delivered in Gama, he expressed regret that he had once committed a crime by violating the laws of his homeland. In conversations with deputies and ministers, he went even further and called the 18th Brumaire a crime, the desire to imitate him madness. With such statements he managed to significantly calm the suspicion of his enemies.
In fact, however, preparations for a coup d'etat began quite early. During the review on October 10, 1850 in Satori, the cavalry shouted: “Long live Napoleon, long live the Emperor!” The infantry, warned by General Neimeyer that according to military regulations, silence in the ranks is mandatory, paraded before the president in silence.
A few days later, General Neimeyer was dismissed. The commander-in-chief of the Parisian army, General Changarnier, by order of the day, read among the troops, forbade the soldiers to make any exclamations in the ranks. A few months later, Changarnier was also fired. During the debate on this matter in the Chamber, Thiers said: “the empire has already been created” (l’empire est fait).
However, the House did not take any measures to prevent a coup d'état. The composition of the legislative assembly, elected in May 1849, was reactionary. At first, it quite energetically supported the president, who was following the same road.
The expedition undertaken by the President in April 1849 to destroy the Roman Republic and restore papal authority found the fullest approval in the House.
On May 31, 1850, the electoral law was changed; As a result of the new registration procedure, three million citizens lost the right to vote. This law was framed by the government and introduced into the House with the approval of the President; nevertheless, in the eyes of the people, responsibility for it fell on one house.
Soon after, the agreement between the president and the monarchical (Orléanist and legitimist) majority of the chamber was broken, and the chamber began to slow down the activities of the president.
The necessary two-thirds majority of votes was not obtained in favor of his desired revision of the Constitution of 1848, and thus the legal possibility of his re-election as president for a new four-year term was eliminated. His term of office expired in May 1852. This was one of the reasons that forced the president to hurry.
On the night of December 2, 1851 (the anniversary of the Battle of Austerlitz), a coup d'état was carried out. Three proclamations signed by the president were posted around the streets. The first was a presidential decree dissolving the national assembly and council of state, restoring universal suffrage and declaring martial law.
The President's signature is countersigned by the Minister of the Interior, Morni. The proclamation to the people motivated the president’s autocratic act by the fact that the constitution made him powerless against a chamber hostile to him; the President appeals to the whole nation, which let them decide whether this painful condition should continue.
If the nation answers in the affirmative, then let it choose another person as president, since he, Napoleon, “does not want a power that makes him responsible for the actions of others and ties him to the helm when the ship is obviously tending to destruction.” If the nation trusts him, then let it give him the means to fulfill the great task entrusted to him.
This means is a new constitution, the main principles of which are: a responsible head appointed for 10 years; ministers dependent only on the executive branch; a legislative assembly elected by universal suffrage and voting on laws. The third proclamation was an appeal to the army.
The dissolution of the assembly by the president, which the constitution in force at the time recognized as a serious crime entailing trial, took the national assembly by surprise.
To weaken possible resistance, that same night almost all political figures who seemed dangerous were arrested, including generals Bedeau, Cavaignac, Changarne, Lamorissiere, Lefleau, Colonel Charras, Thiers and many others.
Protests against the president's autocratic actions were not particularly energetic. The Supreme Court met, but instead of immediately taking action against the president, it hesitated and waited for the outcome of the fight.
The surviving members of the National Assembly, led by Michel (from Bourges), V. Hugo, J. Favre, Bodin (killed at the barricade), and others, gathered here and there, dispersed everywhere by the police and troops, called for a fight, They posted proclamations, but they did not reveal either great energy or unanimity. Nevertheless, street traffic began in Paris: barricades appeared in some places.
The government posted proclamations signed by the Minister of War, in which they threatened to shoot without trial anyone caught at the barricade with weapons in their hands. This proclamation showed that the president decided not to be embarrassed by anything - and indeed, on December 4, a terrible massacre took place on the streets of Paris. Many people, some of whom did not take any part in the protest against the coup, were killed or captured and shot; among those killed were women and children; this was followed by mass exiles to Cayenne and Lambessa.
Attempts at resistance in the provinces were suppressed with the same cruelty. Pope Pius IX sent Napoleon his blessing; the clergy began to vigorously campaign for him. On December 20 and 21, a plebiscite, organized under strong and skillful police pressure, sanctioned the coup by 7.5 million votes to 640 thousand.
It named the president as responsible, but did not indicate any means of holding him accountable; the legislative body retained only the right to discuss laws, which it shared with the Senate; the right of legislative initiative belonged to one state council; executive power was placed entirely in the hands of the president and one minister responsible to him.
There was only one step left to take to turn the republic into an empire. However, Napoleon still hesitated. On March 29, 1852, opening the legislative session, he said: “let us preserve the republic; she doesn't threaten anyone and can calm everyone down. Under her banner, I want to re-consecrate the era of oblivion and reconciliation.” In the autumn of the same year, however, everything was already prepared for the completion of the coup.
During the President's journey through France, a sufficient number of demonstrations were arranged in favor of the restoration of the empire; the president himself in his speeches repeatedly hinted at its desirability.
“They say that the empire will lead the war. No! Empire is peace! - he said in Bordeaux. Prompted by these demonstrations, the Senate, on November 7, spoke in favor of converting France into a hereditary empire, and on November 22, a corresponding change in the constitution was sanctioned by a plebiscite; 7,800,000 votes were cast for him.
On December 2, 1852, the president was proclaimed Emperor of the French under the name of Napoleon III. His civil list was set at 25 million francs. The European powers immediately recognized the new empire; only Russia was somewhat slow in its recognition, and Nicholas I refused the new emperor the usual address of the monarch to the monarch “Monsieur mon frere”. An attempt at marriage with a princess from the ruling house failed, and therefore on January 30, 1853, Napoleon III married Eugenia de Montijo, Countess of Teba.
Until now, Napoleon III had succeeded in everything; his abilities turned out to be completely sufficient to deftly take advantage of the mistakes of his enemies and, based on the brilliance of his name, to organize skillful conspiracies. But these abilities turned out to be insufficient when the need arose to independently govern a state like France.
Napoleon III discovered neither the military nor the administrative genius of his uncle; Bismarck, not without reason, subsequently called him “an unrecognized but major mediocrity.” In the first decade, however, external circumstances were extremely favorable for Napoleon III.
The Crimean War elevated him to a high degree of power and influence. In 1855, he traveled with Empress Eugenie to London, where he received a brilliant reception; in the same year, the kings of Sardinia and Portugal and the queen of England visited Paris. The Italian policy of Napoleon III was peculiar.
He sought to unite the Apennine Peninsula, but with the condition of preserving the inviolability of the temporal power of the popes; at the same time, he needed the unification to be carried out not by Democrats and Republicans, but by conservative elements. Since in fact these aspirations slowed down the progress of unification, the Italian revolutionaries looked at Napoleon III with particular hatred.
Three attempts on his life were organized by the Italians: the first by Pianori (April 28, 1855), the second by Bellamare (September 8, 1855), and the last by Orsini (January 14, 1858).
In 1859, Napoleon III began a war with Austria, the result of which for France was the annexation of Nice and Savoy. Success created France a leading position among European powers. At the same time, French expeditions against China (1857-60), Japan (1858), Annam (1858-1862) and Syria (1860-1861) were successful.
From the mid-1860s, a period of failure began for France. In 1862, Napoleon III undertook an expedition to Mexico, which was an imitation of the Egyptian expedition of Napoleon I and was supposed to decorate the empire with cheap military laurels.
But the expedition was a complete fiasco; French troops had to withdraw from Mexico, leaving Emperor Maximilian, whom they had placed on the Mexican throne, to suffer the revenge of the Republicans.
In 1863, Napoleon III's attempt to organize the intervention of European powers in favor of the rebellious Poland failed, and in 1866 he did not understand the significance for France of the war between Prussia and Austria and allowed a brilliant Prussian victory, which significantly strengthened this dangerous neighbor, without any reward for France.
In 1867, Napoleon III tried to satisfy the offended public opinion of France by purchasing the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg from the King of Holland and conquering Belgium, but the untimely disclosure of his project and the threatening position of Prussia forced him to abandon this plan.
Failures in foreign policy also affected domestic policy. Having gained power through the cooperation of clerical and reactionary elements, Napoleon III had to abandon all his socialist and democratic dreams from the very beginning.
A strictly monarchical constitution in a country that had experienced several revolutions and was familiar with freer orders could only be maintained by relying on severe police oppression: the press was subject to a regime of warnings, the courts were an instrument of the executive power, parliamentary elections were carried out under strong pressure from the administration (see Second Empire ).
Some concession to public opinion had to be made already in 1860, when, by decree of November 12, the right of address to the speech from the throne was returned to the legislative body and ministers (and not just members of the State Council) began to give explanations to the chambers on behalf of the government.
In 1867, the chambers were given the right of interpellation; in 1868, a new, more liberal law on the press was passed. The strengthening of the opposition in the elections of 1869 led to new concessions from Napoleon III, and on January 2, 1870, the liberal Ollivier Ministry was formed, which was supposed to reform the constitution, restoring the responsibility of ministers and expanding the limits of the power of the legislature.
In May 1870, the project developed by the ministry was approved by a plebiscite, but it did not have time to come into force. The policy of the head of state maneuvering between the interests of various social groups received its own name - “Bonapartism”.
In the summer of 1870 complications occurred between France and Prussia. Partly under the influence of the empress, Napoleon III, confident in the military power of France and hoping with victory to make up for all the mistakes of his policy, acted in an extremely defiant manner and brought the matter to war (see Franco-Prussian War). The war revealed the fragility of the state and social system that was created on December 2.
The situation was further complicated by the uprising of the Paris Commune. Near Sedan, Napoleon III himself was forced to surrender to the enemy after, in his words, he “failed to find death.” On September 2, Napoleon III went to Wilhelmgoge Castle, assigned to him for residence by William I.
A day after the surrender of Napoleon III. Captivity in Paris began the September Revolution, which overthrew the government of the emperor.
Released from captivity after the conclusion of peace, he left for England, to Chislhurst, publishing a protest against the resolution of the Bordeaux National Assembly on his overthrow. He spent the rest of his life in Chislhurst and died after an operation to crush kidney stones.
From Eugenia he had one child, Napoleon Eugene, prince of the empire, who after the death of his father was proclaimed Napoleon IV by the Bonapartists. In 1879, the 23-year-old prince, who was in British service, died in South Africa in a skirmish with the Zulus.
All the works of Napoleon III, published by him before 1869, as well as many of his speeches, messages and letters, with the exception, of course, of those that could compromise him, were collected by him in “Oeuvres de N. III” (Paris, 1854-69). This collection did not include only “Histoire de Jules Cesar” (Paris, 1865-66; Russian translation of St. Petersburg, 1865-66), the direct assistant in the writing of which was Louis Maury.
This book testifies to a serious study of Roman history, is written in a lively, elegant language, not without some signs of artistic talent, but extremely tendentious; praising Caesar, Napoleon III. clearly justified himself.
The author sets himself the goal of “proving that Providence creates such people as Julius Caesar, Charlemagne, Napoleon I, in order to pave the way for peoples to follow, to imprint with their genius a new era and to complete the work of centuries in a few years.” “Caesar, as the head of the popular party, felt that a great cause stood behind him; it pushed him forward and obliged him to win, regardless of legality, accusations of enemies and the unknown judgment of posterity.
Roman society demanded a ruler, oppressed Italy - a representative of its rights, a world bent under the yoke - a savior. Of the subsequent works of Napoleon III, “Forces militaires de la France” (1872) is significant. After the death of Napoleon III, “Oeuvres posthumes, autographes inedits de N. III en exil” (P., 1873) was published.
— Interesting facts
* The name "Latin America" was introduced by the French Emperor Napoleon III as a political term; he saw Latin America and Indochina as territories into which France sought to extend its influence throughout his reign. This term helped him reinforce his claims to these territories, and was supposed to include those parts of America in which Romance languages were spoken, that is, territories inhabited by people from the Iberian Peninsula and France during the 15th-16th centuries.
* On August 18, 1921, The Times editorialized that The Protocols of the Elders of Zion was a plagiarism of an obscure mid-19th-century pamphlet against Napoleon III. The pamphlet was called “Dialogue in Hell between Montesquieu and Machiavelli”, its author was the French lawyer and satirist Maurice Joly. Immediately after printing in 1864, the pamphlet was banned in France.
* Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was the only French president who was single during his presidential term (he married Eugenie while already emperor).
