However, the biggest methodological mistake is the idea that somewhere in the West there was a super-civilized Lithuania with advanced statehood, which was ruled by a progressive king - a purebred Lithuanian Mindovg. The Balts did not have any principality as a feudal state, even the Prussians, as the most numerous tribe. At the time of the formation of the Lithuanian principalities, all the Balts had a tribal system with a strong influence of pagan priests, and their small number was explained by the fact that they had not yet really mastered agriculture. The Russian boyars chose Mindovg not for his literacy, but for the strength that stood behind him in the form of his squad and his influence among the leaders of the Baltic tribes.

The civilization and industrialization of Lithuania is a product of the USSR, which it is now happily losing in the United Europe. Lithuania is gradually returning to the position it had before joining Russia. To consider yourself Germans through kinship with the Prussians, which the Lithuanian nationalists declare, is obviously a unique kind of patriotism, since all the Prussians were completely assimilated by the German colonists who moved to the indigenous lands of the Balts, captured by the order states. Unfortunately, the ancestors of the Lithuanians did not know about the passionate desire of their descendants to merge with the Germans, and therefore fought for hundreds of years against the Teutonic and Livonian orders, who came to the lands of the Baltic peoples in a crusade.

Apparently, in the Middle Ages, the Eastern Slavs did not single out the Balts as an alien tribe, especially since the lands of the Balts have long been located in the depths of the territory of the Eastern Slavs. Part of the Balts participated in the formation of the Polish and Belarusian nations, but thanks to the formation of the Principality of Lithuania, the Balts had a chance to subsequently create Lithuania and Latvia as national states.

You just need to be aware that national feelings are a VALUE that the "national" elite inspires in the people in order to maintain their dominant position. For the elite itself, nationality is an empty phrase (a vivid example is Ukraine), however, if you inspire it as a value to citizens, you can get ownership of a whole nation united by this value. Paying tribute to national feelings, one should not be mistaken about their origin.

To those readers who are looking for an answer to the question - How was the Grand Duchy of Lithuania formed?, I advise you to look at the map, which clearly shows that takes place in the northwestern part of the Russian land (so called - Black Rus', according to the coloristic designation of the cardinal points among the Slavs - black \u003d north), which at the time of the formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was OUTSIDE Mongol-Tatar Empire. Independence (1) from the Russian princes and (2) from the Mongol yoke - was the main condition appearance.

Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Rus'

However, the consequence of MOSCOW-CENTRISM is the fact that story Galician and Lithuanian Rus fall out of the orthodox Russian history of Russia as the history of exclusively Muscovite Rus', and then - this one-sidedness does not allow to understand that ripened precisely in these "shards" of Kievan Rus, alien to the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bunifying Russian lands under the rule of Moscow.

Today, a frantic war is being waged against the real and Russia, where the fact that Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia was a Russian-speaking state to conceal the more important fact that Rus Lithuanian was a Russian state , the main population of which were Kievan Rusyns. In the minds of the Russians and the inhabitants of Europe, the invasion of Batu - did not lead to the division of Rus' into separate parts. Western Rus', Southwestern Rus' And Northeast Rus' always remained the country of Russians, only much later the political struggle of the ruling elites of these parts of Rus' divorced history Lithuanian Rus, Galician Rus And Vladimir-Suzdal Rus (Muscovy) according to the main criterion - who will collect united Rus' again .

And, here, people’s ideas about the state in antiquity fully corresponded - as a community of people who were of no interest to anyone in a nationality in some territory - under the rule, for the individualization of which everyone was primarily interested in nationality, at least primary. Nationality passed into the name of the state for the reason that so could be personalized, which in those days were entirely captured by force, inhabited by many different tribes and, more often, unrelated peoples. In conditions of impossibility to determine the ethnic composition of the people of a certain state - nominally it was assigned the nationality of his elite.

If we consider "nationality" by belonging to a tribe, then population of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was very diverse in ethnic composition, however, the Slavonic speakers always prevailed in numbers, keeping its dialect as a western dialect of the Old Russian language of Kievan Rus. If the modern Russian language developed under the great influence of the church language of Cyril and Methodius, which was actually the literary language in Northern Rus', then the modern Belarusian language developed from the Western Russian dialect under the influence of Polish.

Principality of Lithuania and Russia

The Balts have always constituted an insignificant part of the population of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, even at the birth of the Lithuanian state, a separate Lithuanian tribes, apparently - was not (actually, see below about the origin of the name Lithuania). The territory of the birthplace of the Lithuanian state was inhabited by well-known Balto-speaking tribes - Aukshtaites, Samogitians, Yotvingians, Curonians, Latgalians, villages, who fled from the forced Christianization of the Semigallians in the XIII century, Prussians (Bortei or Zuki, Skalovs, Flyers), among which there is no Lithuania. Today one can only guess - where did it come from the word Lithuania(like Rus'), but we can say for sure that the union of the Baltic tribes, formed on the territory bordering Russia, transferred the collective name to the state - Lithuania, the state language of which, due to multinationality, became the Old Russian language, in which, by analogy with the word Rusyn- and the old Russian word was formed litvin- Litvin - in the sense subject Lithuanian principality. Later unity on the basis of allegiance to one state pushed the national self-consciousness of the kindred Baltic-speaking tribes to feel unity in one nationality Lithuanians.

This is confirmed by the appearance of the first references to Lithuania as an adjective Lituae in Latin for the name of the border of some previously unknown state with Russia. Then the term appeared in Europe lithuanians to designate citizens of a state that appeared on the political arena, the core of whose elite, judging by the place of origin, became aukshtaites, in the sense of some UNION of the Balts tribes close to the Prussians. As we know, all the other Prussians were colonized by the Teutonic Order, so much so that they simply dissolved, leaving us not even a language.

History of Lithuania Wikipedia contains an article Lithuania (tribes), which actually proves only THAT, that no tribe named Lithuania did not have, but simply several different tribes of the Balts, moreover, from different ethnic groups, on the lands adjacent to Black Russia formed a territorial union, which received the external name of Lithuania. This Union Lithuania fought with his neighbors - the union of the Balts Yatvyags, Aukshtaity and Samogitia, although the tribes of these same peoples were part of Union Lithuania. The members of the Lithuania union had the name Litvin, which directly comes from the word Lithuania, but from which word the word was formed Lithuanians I don't quite understand. The term Lithuania in the sense union of lithuanian tribes of the balts- is quite legitimate, and the existence of a separate Lithuanian tribe not fixed.

In fact, the full name is Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Russian and Zhemoytskoe- reflected the multinational composition not of the population of the Principality of Lithuania, which was much more diverse, but the specific composition of its elite. The names of the main nationalities are sewn into the name of the state - Principality of Lithuania- for the reason that (1) the union of the Baltic tribes called Lithuania gave the first princes, (2) Principality of Lithuania and Russia not so much due to the numerical predominance of the Rusyns, since the territory of the Lithuanian principality was formed precisely at the expense of the Russian lands of the weakened Kievan Rus, but due to the presence of Russian boyars, on which the Novogrudok principality was based, and additions (3) - Principality of Zhemoytskoe(Zhomoytsky, Zhemaytsky, Zhyamaitsky, Zhmudsky - various transcriptions of the name of the second union of the Baltic tribes, known in Rus' as Zhmud - were introduced by a new dynasty of princes Gediminoviches, originating from the Samogitian tribes.

The first mention of Lithuania in the European Annals of Quedlinburg is under 1009 year when describing the death of a certain missionary Bruno of Querfurt, who was killed "on the border of Rus' and Lithuania", which itself is referred to as Lituae, that is Lithuania in the form of an indirect case (in the sense - Lithuanian- for the border name).

Perhaps the terms Lituae And lithuanians in Europe they spread from the crusaders of the Teutonic Order, who seized the lands of the Prussians, which for neighboring related Baltic tribes became factor for the formation own state. The Russian chronicle mentions the Litvins almost at the same time, but in connection with the campaigns of Prince Yaroslav the Wise in 1040 against the Yotvingians. It seems to me that the reason for the punitive campaign of the powerful Kiev prince was the predatory raids of the squads of the emerging Lithuanian state, as an alliance of tribes on the outskirts of Rus', since the Baltic lands themselves were hardly of particular economic interest to Rus'. It was during the campaign of Yaroslav that the Novgrudok fortress was laid as an outpost, which later turned into the Russian city of Novogrudok, which became the first capital of the Lithuanian principality.

Actually, Lithuanian tribes lived surrounded by Eastern Slavs from the Krivichi tribe, who were paid tribute, so the Western Russian dialect of the Krivichi was understandable to the Balts. To designate the Balts from Lithuanian union of tribes in Rus' constructed the term litvin , litvin- by analogy with the Russian self-name - Rusyn, Rusyn, and in Europe they constructed the term - lithuanians to designate the subjects of the Lithuanian proto-state.

For us it is no longer so important where it came from the word Lithuania- it is most likely that this was the self-name of the tribe that once ruled in the union of the Baltic tribes and was able to nominate the first rulers from its ranks - elite, which gave its own name litvin to all subjects. Already later - from the word litvin ethnonym occurred Lithuanians, when the population of the main indigenous lands () needed to somehow separate themselves from their neighbors.

I do not insist on authenticity, and for Russian history the issue of the emergence of the state among the Balts is relevant only in the plane of the appearance of Lithuanian Rus, which became a competitor to the Muscovite kingdom, ripening inside Vladimir-Suzdal Rus.

In this article, the reader will need an idea of ​​the empire as a state entity, the whole essence of which lies in the unlimited expansion of borders. This "spring" sewn into Lithuanian principality allowed him to turn from an unknown tiny city-state of Novogrudok into the most powerful state in Eastern Europe.

Further article Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia from Wikipedia, which still had to be edited a little. It is possible to understand the history of the Lithuanian-Russian state only by imagining a clear periodization, since at different stages we are dealing with a completely different state, which changes not only the size of its territory, but the political vector of development. Initially Lithuanian principality arises and acts as a typical principality of Kievan Rus, participating in the civil strife of Russian princes, which continues despite the Tatar-Mongol yoke.

However, soon two global forces - the European empire (papal throne and German emperors) on the one hand and the khans (elite) of the Golden Horde begin to "pull" the Russian principalities left without a center on different sides of the "barricade", both on the issue of choosing a faith, and political orientation. Moreover, a feature of those times is the literal undisguised coincidence of "the interests of states" with the personal interests of their rulers in full accordance with the theory of elites.

Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia

History of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania is an Eastern European state that existed from the middle of the 13th century to 1795 on the territory of modern Belarus and Lithuania, as well as partly Ukraine, Russia, Latvia, Poland, Estonia and Moldova.

Periodization of the history of the Principality of Lithuania

1. ON from 1240 to 1385 - as an independent Russian principality, fighting against Southwestern (Galician) Rus' and Northeastern (Vladimir-Suzdal) Rus' for the collection of Kievan lands for yourself. The death of Alexander Nevsky and the flare-up between his heirs allowed the Principality of Lithuania to seize the middle lands of Kievan Rus, and later to annex almost the entire territory of the Galicia-Volyn principality. becoming the most powerful state in Eastern Europe.

2. Since 1385, after the conclusion of a personal union with the Kingdom of Poland, the Principality of Lithuania has been included in the union state, where the main role belongs to the Polish gentry. The reason was the weakening of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania during the wars against Muscovy, which openly announced the gathering of Russian lands.

Since 1385, it was in a personal union with the Kingdom of Poland, and since 1569 - in the Sejm Union of Lublin as part of the confederal state of the Commonwealth. In the XIV-XVI centuries - a rival of the Grand Duchy of Moscow in the struggle for dominance in the Russian lands. It was abolished by the Constitution on May 3, 1791. It finally ceased to exist after the third partition of the Commonwealth in 1795. By 1815, the entire territory of the former principality became part of the Russian Empire.

Rus' and Lithuania

In Russian chronicles, the first dated mention of Lithuania dates back to 1040, when the campaign of Yaroslav the Wise against the Yotvingians took place and the construction of the Novogrudok fortress began - i.e. a Russian outpost was founded against the Litvins - New town, whose name later became Novogrudok.

Since the last quarter of the 12th century, many principalities bordering Lithuania (Gorodenskoe, Izyaslavskoe, Drutskoe, Gorodetskoe, Logoiskoe, Strezhevskoe, Lukomskoe, Bryachislavskoe) have left the field of view of ancient Russian chroniclers. According to the Tale of Igor's Campaign, Prince Izyaslav Vasilkovich died in battle with Lithuania (earlier in 1185). In 1190, Rurik Rostislavich organized a campaign against Lithuania in support of his wife's relatives, came to Pinsk, but due to snowmelt, the further campaign had to be canceled. Since 1198, the Polotsk land has become a springboard for the expansion of Lithuania to the north and northeast. Lithuanian invasions begin directly in Novgorod-Pskov (1183, 1200, 1210, 1214, 1217, 1224, 1225, 1229, 1234), Volyn (1196, 1210), Smolensk (1204, 1225, 1239, 1248) and Chernigov (1220) lands with which annalistic Lithuania had no common borders. The Novgorod first chronicle under 1203 mentions the battle of the Chernigov Olgoviches with Lithuania. In 1207, Vladimir Rurikovich of Smolensk went to Lithuania, and in 1216 Mstislav Davydovich of Smolensk defeated the Litvins, who were plundering the outskirts of Polotsk.

Article Grand Duchy of Lithuania - Wikipedia. had to be corrected because in the period before no formations of the principality of Lithuania Lithuanians did not exist but were Lithuanians ka collectively the name of the Balts, who raided deep into the Russian principalities.

History of the Principality of Lithuania

If you follow the chronicles, then at the beginning of the second millennium, the Baltic tribes often raided the nearest Russian principalities, which allowed the Russian chroniclers to correlate the robbers with the territory already known in Rus', for which the generalized name Lithuania. However, the Balts themselves have not yet been united into a single union, since we know at least about TWO unions - a separate union of Samogitian tribes, and we are interested in - a Lithuanian union based on Aukshaits, which, after the Yotvingians entered it, just received a common the name of Lithuania. In those ancient times, when no one asked the nationality of the robbers, all the gangs of robbers from the Varangian Sea in Rus' were called the same and without distinction - Litvins from Lithuania. Lithuania, running out of its forests to the border villages of Pskov, was devastating.

Actually, already THAT Lithuanian tribes pursued only purely predatory goals, tells us that the state organization of Lithuania was loose - the meaning of allied relations was to create a single detachment of armed men to rob neighbors, who clearly already had a higher level of government in the form of principalities, headed by all means princes from the same family Rurikovich, which united them into one confederation of principalities, which had the name Rus.

The chronicles tell us that the Russian princes, in order to pacify the Litvins, themselves carried out punitive raids on the lands of the Balts, erecting defensive fortresses on the borders with the lands of the Balts, one of which was Novogrudok, which turned into the center of a small newly formed Russian principality. However, against the backdrop of expansion by the crusaders, and especially after the defeat of Rus' by the Mongol-Tatars, the policy of the elites of this border Russian principality towards neighboring alliances of Lithuanian tribes begins to change. Armed squads from the Balts, who have already gained experience in waging war, begin to invite the Russian border city for defense, which is expressed in annalistic form as an "invitation to reign" their leaders (which had already happened before Mindovg).

It should be noted that - history of the Lithuanian state, most likely, it would never have started like that, because the Balts had already been pushed back from all sides by the Order of the Crusaders - the Teutonic and Livonian, well, why hide - Rus' itself, if in a small Russian principality - the boyars (read correctly - the elite) would not have dared to invite the Lithuanian leader Mindovg with his retinue to reign. This is how TWO problems were solved at once - (1) the armed guards appeared and (2) the raids stopped, the raids from Lithuania, since they themselves Lithuanians began to defend Novogrudok.

They were able to break the inexorable rule about the possibility of reigning only members of the Rurik family in Novogrudok due to the circumstances of the weakening of Rus', when the clan of the princes of Rurik, who owned Russia, was severely reduced as a result of defeats in battles with the Mongols-Tatars. Actually, both in relation to the crusaders, chained together with horses in armor, and in relation to the unusual deceptive tactics of the Tatar cavalry, Rus' was faced with an unfamiliar technology of warfare. Moreover, almost unarmed Tatars on small horses turned out to be even more invulnerable than German knights clad in iron.

The third condition for the success of the first Lithuanian prince was the almost immediate support from the Pope of Rome and the European Empire, which, with the assistance of Poland, were colonizing the Baltic lands. Giving Mindovg the title of king was an advance to attract Lithuania to the side of Catholic Europe. Although the heirs of Mindovg were no longer crowned kings, they by all rights acquired the title of grand dukes, even according to the concepts adopted in the empire of the Eastern Slavs. The royal title was never required by the Lithuanian princes, since the Lithuanian principality was Russian, and Rus' had its own tradition of glorifying rulers, in which only the title "Grand Duke" was supreme.

What are the reasons for the formation of the Principality of Lithuania

Reasons for the formation of the Lithuanian principality- in changing the policy of the Russian elite of the Russian city of Novogrudok in relation to the leaders of the unions of neighboring Lithuanian tribes with a hostile one - to the creation of a single state association - Russian-Lithuanian state- in the form of the Novgrudok principality, in which - in principle, "Russian" in its location - the invited Litvin began to rule Mindovg, How first Lithuanian prince.

I think then no one really thought about what to call the new Russian-Lithuanian state- it turned out that the adjective Lithuanian placed before the word principality, especially since the Mindrvgu had no choice but to accept the Western Russian language as the state language - simply, formation of the Lithuanian-Russian state began in the Russian city of Novogrudok. Any Baltic language was of no interest to anyone, since the language of communication between Rusyns and Litvins, probably, had long been the Rusyn language.

Now, after answering the question - what are the reasons for the formation of the Lithuanian principality, I want to give an idea of ​​the states themselves in the era of feudalism. In Russian orthodox history, they put forward in the first place as something unusual - features of Kievan Rus as a confederation of almost independent principalities, which allows some anti-Russian historians to argue that the state itself - Kievan Rus - did not really exist. Actually, they appeal to today's idea of ​​the structure of the state as centralized, the creation of which in Rus' only Ivan the Terrible will be able to complete.

Firstly, Kyiv Rus' is just a term for a period in the history of Rus' called Kyiv or pre-Mongolian- from before the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars, when Kyiv was the political center and capital of the ancient Russian state. Then the feudal fragmentation with which they are worn like a hand-written sack was not a unique feature of the ancient Russian state - in Europe all states were separate fiefs as some kind of territory that the feudal lord COULD PERSONALLY BYPASS to collect taxes. Since, simply for physical reasons, the feudal lord could not control a large territory, the European principalities were small in size. The states in Europe were like a nesting doll - small fiefs formed a larger fief of a signora, larger in relation to the fiefs of vassals, since it overlapped them. Even larger were the fiefs of lords, princes or dukes, which together constituted the fief of the king or grand duke, whose fief was considered the state.

Secondly, the principle according to which only members of the Rukovich family could reign in the Russian principalities was also not unique, although it was carried out unquestioningly for hundreds of years after the bloody lesson taught by Prophetic Oleg to the Kiev "imposters" - from simple combatants who took the place of the Kiev princes and sentenced to death only for the lack of kinship with Rurik. Indeed, the entire history of the European empire just shows us the struggle of the princes for the device of themselves or their descendants to the vacant place of the monarch.

Features of the Lithuanian state were typical of territorial empires, which no doubt was Lithuanian principality 13th-15th century, since it was formed by the leader of the pagan Balts, who became a prince in a Christian Orthodox principality, inhabited by Rusyns, but outside the principality they were already called Litvins. The main feature of the Lithuanian state thing is great state of lithuania became a "melting pot" in which two current nations were formed - Lithuanians and Belarusians, as the descendants of those Litvins and Russians who were united by the Great Russian-Lithuanian state, which became one of the three parts of Rus' during the period of the Mongol yoke under the name.

To understand the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, some periodization should be carried out, since Lithuanian principality in the 13th century is "Great" only in the dreams of his princes, while Grand Duchy of Lithuania 15th century- the largest state in Europe in terms of territory (except for the Golden Horde or, perhaps, North-Eastern Rus', which did not have any fixed borders in the East).

Grand Duchy of Lithuania 13th century

The consolidation of the Principality of Lithuania took place against the backdrop of a gradual offensive by the crusaders of the Order of the Sword in Livonia and the Teutonic Order in Prussia, leading a crusade for the conversion to Christianity of the pagan Prussians, who stubbornly continued to adhere to their ancient pagan beliefs. Unfortunately, the details of the presence of statehood among the Baltic tribes themselves remained out of the attention of chroniclers, since the Teutonic Order did not keep records of events among the conquered Baltic tribes, and Russian chroniclers since the campaign of Yaroslav the Wise have lost interest in the peoples of this region of Kievan Rus, since the main Crusaders of the Teutonic and Livonian orders become enemies, the fight against which belongs to the prerogatives of the princes of the Novgorod land and the Pskov principality. The rest of Rus' focused all its attention on the strife between the brothers princes and the first attack of the Mongol-Tatars, which destroyed the flower of the Russian army.

Princes of the Principality of Lithuania

I hope the reader understands that History is a description of the activities of the elite of society, which makes decisions and is often responsible for the correctness of the choice with life. Everything is in full accordance with the theory of elites - representatives of the people living in different parts of the state are not only unable to assess the event (which is important when writing history), but they do not even know about it if it has not touched them personally. Knowing and evaluating is a function of the elite, which, in order to make life easier for their descendants, only for the sake of keeping them in power as long as possible, begins to write history as an instruction based on accumulated experience. Chronicles were written by literate people in ancient times by order of the authorities, today the intelligentsia offers variants of history - and the elite chooses the option that is beneficial to it in today's conditions.

Therefore, there is no objective history or "in general" - each is written from some point in space and time - to know, from a certain angle, which is necessarily present and determines the assessment of events, and the role of elite representatives in them. The first Lithuanian princes, not burdened with obligations to any numerous parties of the elite or officials, acted on the basis of their purely personal interests, disposing of the state as personal property.

The world is diverse, therefore we are interested in the character, personal qualities and even the appearance of the princes of Lithuania, which definitely influenced the course of history. The logic of development goes by itself, and the mistakes or tactical successes of the princes are a retreat or following the strategy of this logic, which sometimes changes the goals of the logic itself.

The first Lithuanian princes

First Lithuanian prince first mentioned in the treaty of 1219 between the Galicia-Volyn principality and the "princes" of Lithuania, devils and Samogitians ( lithuania- in the sense of the name of the union of Lithuanian tribes). In Russian, the agreement appears Prince Mindovg, How fourth leader on the list of leaders of the Balts, which immediately raises the question of the reasons why the future first prince of Lithuania occupied by 1240 a leading position among the rest of the Lithuanian leaders-princes.

We must understand that the Lithuanian princes mentioned in the annals were still leaders of tribal unions, since concept of prince suggests that he has a personal castle - a fortress or in the old Russian detinets, around which a city grows. Since we do not know about Lithuanian cities, the Lithuanian leaders have not yet distinguished themselves so much from among their fellow tribesmen as to have a fortified personal dwelling with a warehouse for storing the collected tribute. However, the further history of Mindovg's approval as the first among the five leaders mentioned in the annals confirms the fact that among the Balts there are already families or clans that have seized power or have hereditary advantages to take the place of the leader. Perhaps someone else, due to their personal courage or wisdom, could still take the place of the leader, but the story of the rise of Mindovg shows that the men of his family are already aware of the value of supporting each other in order to find the whole family in a privileged position among the rest of the tribe. The chronicle mentions Mindovg as the fourth, and shortly after his becoming a prince, his brothers and nephews are listed, who occupy key positions in power among the Baltic tribes. The rest of the leaders from the annalistic list of leaders disappear from the historical scene, apparently pushed aside by a close-knit group of men from the Mindovga clan.

Actually, the above paragraph is the beginning of a separate article - as an insert into this article, which has already become too large. The first Lithuanian princes they also acted as leaders of the squad from the Balts, since it was important for them to receive support precisely among their fellow tribesmen and, accordingly, members of their own family, who occupied key positions in the unions of the Baltic tribes. Obviously, the resource of the Russian Novogrudok Principality was immediately used to strengthen the position of Mindovg's relatives in the power structures of the Lithuanian captive unions.

On the other hand, an invitation to a principality had only the force of an agreement of a hired leader of a military squad, and the practice of invitation itself had ancient traditions, when the squad was expelled. Therefore, the first prince of Lithuania should be regarded as a successful adventurer who, like Rurik, managed to realize the opportunity and gain a foothold in the place of the prince, without relying on any party or family ties among the Russian boyars. Most likely, the first Lithuanian prince was a member of the dynasty of the Polotsk princes through the female line, as the chronicle hints at. The Principality of Polotsk itself lost its significance, but a century earlier it was in second place among the Russian principalities, the lot of the first heirs to the throne of the Kyiv Grand Dukes.

I single out Mindovg both as a person and as the leader of the Baltic tribes, who became the first prince and for the Balts themselves, who became citizens of the state he created on the Russian lands of Black Rus' and the adjacent lands of the Balts themselves.

Board of Mindaugas

So, let us once again recall the geopolitical situation in the Baltic region, when the Russian principalities, weakened by the defeat from the Tatar-Mongols, leave the border lands out of their sphere of attention, where, in violation of the rule, it became possible to invite princes not from the Rurik dynasty. According to one of the hypotheses, the boyars of the Russian city of Novogrudok and Lithuanian prince Mindovg begin negotiations on an invitation to reign closer to 1240, when Mindovg is nominated for the role of chief leader among the leaders of the Baltic tribes. The main danger for Novogrudok came from Prince Daniel of Galicia, since the Galicia-Volyn principality, in its expansionist aspiration to dominate the whole of Rus', itself - the most southwestern principality, "reached out" even to the northern outskirts of Rus'. The eastern direction for the expansion of the Galician principality was blocked by the Tatars, in the western direction the prince of Galicia was looking for friendship with Hungary, only the northern direction remained.

The first Lithuanian prince successfully used the opposition of the Principality of Pskov, and most importantly, of Alexander Nevsky, who reigned in Novgorod, with Daniil of Galicia, but in the end, Lithuania fell under the influence of the Galicia-Volyn principality, which became the main fighter against the crusaders invited by the Polish king to Prussian lands. Novgorod and Pskov would simply have annexed the principality of Novogrudok, and an alliance with the strong principality of Galicia would provide the principality of Lithuania with the possibility of independence from the Russian principalities, and help in the fight against the crusaders. In addition, the remoteness from the Golden Horde allowed the Principality of Lithuania not to pay tribute and accumulate resources, even providing it with security from the sudden raids of the Tatars. All history of the Principality of Lithuania- this is its expansion due to the weakening Galicia-Volyn principality, which did not have such a successful geopolitical position.

Considering the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the aspect of its formation as Lithuanian Rus, we must remember that immediately after the invasion of the Tatars, Kievan Rus broke up into TWO parts - the long-standing unauthorized Galicia-Volyn principality and the northeastern confederation of Russian principalities. Galician Rus' came into contact with the European empire, from which it began to seek protection in the confrontation with the Golden Horde, and North-Eastern Rus', at the hands of Alexander Nevsky, entered into a close alliance with the Golden Horde. Moreover, the help of the Western European empire demanded from Galician Rus' a profound change in the cultural and religious foundations, while the Tatars did not seek to change anything in the states they captured, in which their original way of life was preserved. As history has shown, CHOICE Alexander Nevsky turned out to be more effective for the self-preservation of Rus'. The core for the revival of Rus' was preserved precisely in the northern principalities, among which Moscow became the main collector of Russian lands.

The most likely reason for inviting Mindovg to reign in Russian Novogrudok was his hypothetical belonging to the Russian dynasty of Polotsk princes (see Mindovg's biography), since at that time kinship with princes and dynastic marriages were decisive for occupying the princely throne. Occupation by a pagan of the place of a prince in an Orthodox city was not something unusual, since no one paid attention to this. The baptism of Mindovg according to the Orthodox rite is not recorded, but most likely it was with his family, since his son Voyshelk makes a pilgrimage to Athos and becomes a monk, but the baptism of Mindovg according to the Catholic rite in 1251 is a recorded fact that clearly served the political goals of easing pressure by the ordering Catholic states.

History of the Lithuanian state begins with the wars that Prince Mindovg organizes to turn his tiny Novogrudok principality into the Principality of Lithuania, for which, first of all, he eliminates rivals among the leaders of the Baltic tribes, forcing his nephew Tovtivil (mindovk’s protege in the Principality of Polotsk) together with the rest of the leaders to make a campaign against the Smolensk lands, promising the occupied lands to their control. Having learned about the failure of the campaign, Mindovg seized the lands of the prince-leaders and tried to organize their murder. Most likely, the leaders from the failed Smolensk campaign returned not to their own, but to other tribes of the Balts.

Lithuanian king

To weaken the coalition of his enemies, which included the Livonian Order, Prince Mindovg goes to the trick - he "gives" the Livonian Order the lands of the recalcitrant Baltic tribes in exchange, first for baptism according to the Catholic rite, and then in 1253 coronation of Mindaugas by order of Pope Innocent IV. Having presented the Livonian Order with part of the Samogitian and Yatvingian lands, Mindovg strengthens its power over all Black Russia (the word "Black" goes back to the ancient designation of the cardinal point - Server - y, for what reason the name Bela Rus will initially denote North-Eastern Rus', and Red Rus'- southern Galich lands of Rus').

It is necessary to understand the political position of Western (Black) Rus', which became the historical center of the Principality of Mindovga, as a northwestern wedge of Russian lands, on which the interests of the Catholic German orders and Veliky Novgorod opposing them, headed by Alexander Nevsky, the Kingdom of Poland and Daniel of Galicia, converged, and , for the latter, Mindovg turned out to be a natural ally. For Galicia-Volyn Principality of Lithuania as an independent one, it was of interest to oppose rivals, which in no way canceled Daniel's claims to reign by the right of the Rurikovichs, therefore, as we know, Mindovg was forced to transfer the rule in Novogrudok to Daniel's son - Roman, which, together with the rebaptism of Mindovg to Catholicism, leads him to confrontation with his own son Voyshelok, who led the Orthodox party.

Voyshelka's biography confirms the thesis that the Lithuanian princes became Russian princes already in the second generation, since son of Mindovg demonstrates exceptional fidelity to Orthodoxy. In addition, Voyshelk goes against the pagan father, who was baptized several times for political purposes and returned to paganism before his death, and returns to reign only for the sake of becoming a truly Russian principality of Lithuania, since he himself recognizes the right of the Rurikovichs to reign and voluntarily transfers the reign to Shvarn, son Daniil Galitsky. From Voyshelka, the Principality of Lithuania is firmly included in the "clip" of the Russian principalities on the rights of an appanage principality.

Actually, it is difficult to show the borders of the Lithuanian-Russian state under Mindovga and Voyshelka on the map - I depicted the area that captures the Russian lands and the lands of the Balts. It is more important for me to show that literally after a few years of reign (in 1254), Mindovg recognizes his Russian principality as part of the empire of the Galician prince Daniel, planting in Novogrudok, the former capital of the principality, Roman Danilovich, the son of Daniel. In fact, this was the recognition of the laws of Rus' on the reign, according to which only a member of the Rurik dynasty could reign. In fact, a strange situation arises when King Mindovg, having transferred the capital to Rurikovich, himself is in an unknown residence - most likely precisely because of the unknown - on the territory of the Lithuanian tribes. The dual power will continue under the son of Mindovg - Voyshelka, who will kill Roman Danilovich, but then voluntarily give the Principality of Lithuania to another son of Daniel - Shvarn Danilovich, in turn recognizing the unconditional rights of the Ruriks to reign in any Russian principality.

The first Lithuanian princes could not fight against the rules of Galician Rus, which was not only the hegemon in the region, but also almost the only natural ally of the Lithuanian princes. Most likely, the principality of Novogrudok would have simply been annexed by the Russian neighbors, but as an outpost of the Galicia-Volyn principality in the northwestern corner of Rus', it was preserved as a state entity. The patronage of Galician Rus had to be paid for by the transfer of power to the sons of Daniel of Galicia, but they also contributed to the expansion of the territory and the strengthening of the principality as not a specific, but a Grand Duchy.

Another thing is that the Galicia-Volyn principality itself, for which the Lithuanian principality has become a lot, begins to fall apart for several reasons at once, which, in the face of the weakening influence of the Galician princes, allows a new generation of Lithuanian impostors from the Zhmud leaders to seize power in the Lithuanian principality and create a new dynasty of Lithuanian princes - Gediminovichi.

The murder of Shvarn as a legitimate Russian prince from the Rurik dynasty opposed the Lithuanian principality to the rest of Rus'. After several political assassinations of the new princes, obviously self-promoted by their military squad, the princely power is finally consolidated under Gediminas, as the prince of the Lithuanian principality, independent of the Galician grand dukes.

As I already said, activities of the Lithuanian princes covered in a separate article - but we note that with Gediminas, the expansion of the Lithuanian principalities begins due to the annexation, first of all, of the southern Russian lands. After the death of the main (from our point of view) political figures - Alexander Nevsky and Daniil Galitsky, their states were fragmented into inheritances of heirs who did not particularly show themselves, except for Daniil Alexandrovich, who, with his peace-loving policy, brought the seedy specific Moscow principality to the first row of the most influential principalities.

The entry of Lithuania into the political system of Catholic Europe for a couple of decades allowed Mindovg to strengthen his power among the Baltic tribes, and create an alliance with the Galicia-Volyn principality by transferring the reign in Novogrudok to the son of the Galician prince Roman Danilovich (Novogrudok prince 1254-1258). The union was not overshadowed by the joint campaign against Poland and Lithuania by the Horde and Galicians, organized under pressure from the khans of the Zola Horde, who did not forgive Mindovga for accepting the title of king from the pope. Daniil Galitsky himself evaded the campaign, transferring command to his brother, Prince of Volyn Vasilko Romanovich, which did not save his son Roman Danilovich from being captured by Voyshelka, the son of Mindovg, who led the Russian party in Novogrudok. Roman Danilovich was killed in 1258, which coincides in time with the renunciation of Mindovg from Christianity (it is not clear whether only from Catholicism) and the return to open struggle against the Catholic Orders. After supporting several uprisings of the Prussians, the Litvins under the leadership of Midovg won the Battle of Durba, which became the stage for the accession of Samogitia to the GDL. However, in 1263, Mindovg, along with his younger sons, was killed as a result of a conspiracy organized by the Polotsk prince Tovtivil and Mindovg's nephews - Troynat and Dovmont, which ended with the occupation of the place of the Grand Duke Troynat (1263-1264), who soon killed the head of the conspirators Tovtivil.

GREAT PRINCIPALITY OF LITHUANIA (GDL), a state in Eastern Europe in the 13th-16th centuries. The ethnic core is the land of Lietuva in Aukstaitija.

Formation ON. The union of Lithuanian lands, which included Lietuva, the regions of Upita and Deltuva, Siauliai and part of Samogitia, was first mentioned in 1219. In the 1230s and 1240s, the transformation of this union, headed by Prince Lietuva Mindovg (Mindaugas), into a single state was accelerated by the threat emanating from the Teutonic Order. In the fight against him, the GDL claimed the role of unifier of the Balts' lands south of the Western Dvina. In 1236, at the Battle of Saule, Lithuanians and Samogitians defeated the army of the crusaders. By the middle of the 13th century, Black Rus' became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. From the middle of the 13th century monks of spiritual orders preached in Lithuania. To deter the onset of the order and strengthen his power, Mindovg converted to Catholicism (1251), was crowned (1253) and secured the promise of Pope Alexander IV for the coronation of his son. Under pressure from the Samogitians, who defeated the troops of the Livonian Order at Durben (1260), Mindovg broke with Catholicism. However, since the end of the 13th century, after the assassination of Mindovg and internal strife, which was ended by Troiden (Traidenis; 1269-1281/82), the question of Lithuania's acceptance of Catholicism was repeatedly raised again. The Lithuanian princes associated his decision with the cessation of the aggression of the Livonian Order.

The ON developed as a poly-ethnic and poly-confessional state, which contributed to the establishment of the power of duumvirs (usually brothers) - the Grand Duke (residence - Vilna, now Vilnius) and his co-ruler (residence - Troki, now Trakai), between whom political power was distributed in various parts of the ON: Boudikid (Butigeidis) (1280s - circa 1290) and Pukuver Budivid (Pukuveras Butvydas) (1280s - circa 1295); Viten (Vityanis) (about 1295-1316) and Gediminas (Gediminas).

From the 2nd half of the 13th century, the cities of Vilna, Troki, Kovno (now Kaunas), Grodno, Novogrudok and others developed, the economic growth of which was promoted by the policy of the great princes aimed at encouraging trade, establishing international trade relations, attracting European merchants to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and artisans.

In 1307, the Principality of Polotsk was annexed to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

heyday ON. During the period of the sole reign of the founder of the Gediminovich dynasty, Gedimin (1316-1341) and the reign of his sons, Olgerd (Algirdas) (1345-77) and Keistut (Kyastutis) (1345-77, 1381-82), a significant strengthening of the GDL took place. During the offensive on Russian lands in the 1310-1320s, the GDL included the Drutsk, Vitebsk, Minsk, Pinsk, Turov and Slutsk principalities, around 1360 - the Principality of Bryansk, around 1362 - the Principality of Kiev, in the 1360s - Chernigov principality, in the 1340-70s - Volhynia. The annexed principalities entered into a series of agreements with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania; the borders of the principalities, the structure of government, the immunity rights of local feudal lords were preserved, in small principalities - local dynasties. The vassal duties of the nobility were the payment of tribute and participation in hostilities. Some representatives of the nobility (Khodkevich, Ostrozhsky, etc.) became part of the top of the largest landowners of the GDL, played a large role in political life. By the middle of the 14th century, the active offensive of the crusaders on the borders of Lithuania was stopped; a period of long positional wars began with periodic invasions of the Order into Samogitia and Lithuanians into Prussia and Zemgalia. At the same time, Samogitia, while maintaining broad autonomy, gradually integrated into the GDL. The rulers of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania acted as rivals of the Moscow princes in the unification of the Russian lands: they supported the Tver principality in the fight against the Grand Duchy of Moscow, and during the campaigns of Olgerd, Lithuanian troops tried to capture Moscow three times.

The struggle for power after the death of Olgerd between his brother Keistut and his son Jagiello, supported by the Teutonic Order, ended in 1382 with the victory of the latter. The renewal of the war with the order in 1383 forced Jagiello to turn to Poland. As a result of the Union of Krevo in 1385, Jagiello became both the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1386. The privileges of Jagiello (1387, 1389) determined the status of Catholicism as the state religion and secured the immune rights of the Catholic Church. At the same time, the Grand Dukes of Lithuania repeatedly tried to achieve the establishment of a special metropolis in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, since Orthodoxy, although it did not have the status of a state church, was preserved in Russian lands and cities (some princes were also Orthodox, for example, Gediminovichi, who ruled in Russian principalities). At the same time, measures were taken to prevent the spread of Orthodoxy in ethnically Lithuanian lands. In 1388, the war against Jagiello was started by his cousin, the son of Keistut - Vitautas (Vytautas), supported by the Samogitians and the Teutonic Order. The conflict ended with the signing of the Treaty of Ostrovsky (1392), according to which Vitovt became the ruler of the GDL; the status of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the new state-political formation was also specified. In 1393 Vitovt concluded a peace treaty with Novgorod. Since 1395, Vytautas has been officially referred to as the Grand Duke in documents. According to the Salinsky Treaty of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with the Teutonic Order (1398), Novgorod was recognized as a zone of interests of Lithuania, Pskov - of the Livonian Order; Samogitia was transferred to the Teutonic Order. According to the Union of Vilna-Radom in 1401, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania remained an independent state in alliance with Poland. In 1404, Vitovt managed to annex the Smolensk principality to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The union with Poland contributed to victories in the fight against the Teutonic Order (the Battle of Grunwald in 1410; the return of Samogitia in 1409-10s, finally in 142). According to the Union of Horodel in 1413, the rights of the Polish gentry were extended to the Catholic feudal lords of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The privileges of 1432 and 1434 equalized the Orthodox and Catholic nobility in certain economic and political rights. "Russian" (Old Belarusian) was in the 15-16 centuries the language of the office of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. By the 1430s, the GDL expanded to the upper reaches of the Oka River and the Black Sea, conquered part of the southern Russian lands from the Golden Horde and included the territories of modern Lithuania, Belarus, as well as parts of modern Ukraine and Russia. In the 14th-15th centuries, a large feudal landownership was formed in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Many cities received the Magdeburg Law and became centers of multinational culture.

Development of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 2nd half of the 15th - mid-16th century. As a result of the Russian-Lithuanian wars, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania lost the Verkhovsky principalities, Smolensk, Chernigov, Bryansk, Novgorod-Seversky. From the end of the 15th century, the struggle between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Crimean Khanate unfolded. Intervening in the war between the Archbishopric of Riga and the Livonian Order, the rulers of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania sought to subjugate Livonia to their influence. According to the Posvolsky agreements of 1557, an alliance of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Livonia was created to oppose the Russian state. After the start of the Livonian War of 1558-83, the Vilnius Treaty of 1559 established the suzerainty of the GDL over the Livonian Order. After the 2nd Vilna truce (November 28, 1561), the order's possessions in Livonia underwent secularization and came under the joint possession of the GDL and Poland.

From the end of the 15th century, the Diets (local and national) of the nobility of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania gathered; the privileges of 1447 and 1492 actually put the power of the Grand Duke under the control of the Council of Pans - the council of the nobility and the highest clergy. The rights of the feudal class of the GDL are enshrined in the Lithuanian Statutes (1529, 1566). In the era of the Reformation (mid-16th century), Protestantism (Calvinism in the form of reformism) became widespread among the highest nobility of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (the Radziwills and others). Some magnates of Russian origin (Sapieha, Orshansky, Khodkevichi, etc.) converted to Catholicism in the 15th and early 16th centuries.

In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, the transition to cash rent was accompanied by an increase in the exploitation of the peasants and an intensification of the struggle between the peasants and the feudal lords. In the middle of the 16th century, with the development of a commodity economy, corvée rent prevailed. From the 1st half of the 16th century book printing in Russian and Lithuanian developed in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

ON as part of the Commonwealth. Under the terms of the Union of Lublin in 1569, a new state was created - the Commonwealth, headed by the Polish king, who was also the Grand Duke of Lithuania, who was elected for life by the gentry of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. A common Sejm was created, but the GDL and Poland retained their own administration, army, finances, judicial system, and legislation. The gentry received equal rights to own land in any part of the federation. Podlyashskoe and Kiev provinces, Volyn, Podolia went under the authority of the king.

The withering away of Lithuanian statehood gradually proceeded. In the 1560s, local gentry self-government was organized according to the Polish model. In 1579 a university was opened in Vilnius. In 1588, a new Lithuanian statute was issued, which secured the victory of serfdom. In the 17-18 centuries, the Polonization of the nobility of the GDL took place. By the end of the 17th century, most of the gentry spoke Polish, and since 1697 Polish has been the official language of the office of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The GDL was completely abolished in accordance with the May 3rd, 1791 constitution. As a result of the divisions of the Commonwealth, the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was ceded to the Russian Empire.

Lit .: Lyubavsky M.K. Essay on the history of the Lithuanian-Russian state up to the Union of Lublin inclusive. M., 1910; Pashuto V. T. Formation of the Lithuanian state. M., 1959; Dvornichenko A. Yu. Russian lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: (Before the beginning of the 16th century): Essays on the history of the community, estates, statehood. SPb., 1993; Kiaupenè J. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania in East Central Europe or once again about the Lithuanian-Polish Union // Lithuanian Historical Studies. 1997. No. 2; Yanin V. L. Novgorod and Lithuania. Border situations of the XIII-XV centuries. M., 1998; Dubonis A. Lietuvos didziojo kunigaiksöio leiciai. Is Lietuvos ankstyviyij valstybiniij struktürq praeities. Vilnius, 1998; Blaszczyk G. Litwa na przelomie sredniowiecza i nowozytnosci: 1492-1596. Poznan, 2002; Petrauskas R. The Lithuanian nobility in the latefourteenth and early fifteenth centuries: composition and structure // Lithuanian Historical Studies. 2002. No. 7; Gudavichyus E. History of Lithuania: from ancient times to 1569. M., 2005.

As already noted, by the XII century. on the territory of the Baltic tribes living in the Neman basin, several political associations arose - "lands": Samogitia (Zhmud), Deltuva (Dyaltuva), etc. These associations, headed by princes (kunigas), became the basis for the formation of the Lithuanian state. Its territorial core was one of the principalities that came to the fore in the first half of the 13th century. in military-political terms, Aukstaitija (Auxtote in Western sources), or “Upper Lithuania”, is in the foreground. This “land” occupied the right bank of the middle Neman and the basin of its tributary, the Viliya River. The formation of a unified Lithuanian principality is associated with the activities of Prince Mindovg (Mindaugas ruled from the 1230s to 1263). By the end of his reign, he subjugated all the Lithuanian principalities - "lands" and, in addition, captured the western part of the Polotsk principality from the upper reaches of the Viliya to Black Rus' - the territory along the left tributaries of the Neman with the cities of Novgorodok, Volkovysk and Slonim. It is known that in the early 1250s. Mindovg accepted Christianity according to the Catholic rite (although most of his subjects continued to be pagans) and the title of king. Nevertheless, in Russian sources, the Lithuanian state was almost always referred to as the "principality" or "grand principality", and its heads - "princes".

Lands united by Mindovg (with the exception of Samogitia), in the XIII-XV centuries. were called "Lithuania" in the narrow sense of the word. The Western Russian territories included in this region underwent some Lithuanian colonization, which was predominantly military in nature. The capital city of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the second half of the XIII century. was Novgorodok. As the state grew, this area was subject to a process of political fragmentation: in the XIV-XV centuries. Vilna, Trotsky (Trakai), Gorodensky and Novgorod principalities existed here. Samogitia (Zhmudskaya land), which occupied the right bank of the Neman from the bank to the Western Dvina in its middle reaches, retained a certain administrative isolation from Lithuania in the XIV-XV centuries, although the power of the Grand Dukes extended to it.

It should be noted that in the "gathering" of Russian lands by the Lithuanian princes in the XIV-XV centuries. military takeovers were by no means the only method. Specific principalities turned out to be their property both as a result of dynastic marriages and as a result of the voluntary recognition of vassal dependence on Lithuania by some Russian princes.

Under the heirs of Mindaugas, the growth of the state territory of the Principality of Lithuania continued. Under Vyten (Vytenis, 1295-1316) in 1307, Polotsk with the district was conquered from the Livonian Order. During the reign of Gediminas (Gediminas, 1316–1341), the city of Vilna (Vilnius since 1323) became the capital of the state, the Minsk specific principality, which reached the upper one, and Vitebsk, and in the southwest - the Beresteyskaya land (Podlyashye) were annexed. At the same time, the influence of Lithuania began to spread to Polesie, where the specific principalities of the Turov-Pinsk land were located. Thus, by the middle of the XIV century. Russian lands within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania surpassed Lithuanian proper both in area and in population. It is not surprising that Gediminas began to call himself the prince of "Lithuanian, Zhmud and Russian", and later historians and the whole state sometimes began to call "Lithuanian-Russian" or "Russian-Lithuanian". Such a name more adequately reflects the essence of this power, since in the future, in the second half of the 14th - 15th centuries, it expanded almost exclusively at the expense of the former Russian principalities and lands. Although the ruling dynasty remained Lithuanian, it, like all Lithuanian nobility, experienced significant Russian influence. Interestingly, attached in the XIV century. the lands along the upper Dnieper, Berezina, Pripyat and Sozh in the Lithuanian-Russian documents were called "Rus" in the narrow sense of the word, and this name was retained for this region throughout the entire period of the existence of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

In 1345–1377 Gedimin's sons Olgerds (Algirdas) and Kestutis (Kestutis) jointly headed the state. Being co-rulers, they separated the foreign policy sphere between themselves: Olgerd tried to establish the influence of Lithuania in the Russian lands, and Keistut, having received Samogitia and Trakai in control, fought the Livonian Order. If the activities of Keistut were mainly defensive in nature, then Olgerd managed to carry out several more territorial annexations. On the left bank of the Dnieper, he captured the northern allotments of the Chernigov-Seversk land with the cities of Bryansk, Trubchevsk, Starodub, Novgorod Seversky, Chernigov, Rylsk and Putivl. The Verkhovsky principalities located in the basin of the upper reaches of the Oka - Novosilskoye, Odoevskoye, Vorotynskoye, Belevskoye, Kozelskoye and others - also recognized their dependence on Lithuania. True, these territories repeatedly passed from Lithuania to the Moscow principality and back. To the west of the Dnieper, Olgerd managed to annex the entire Kiev region, and after the victory over the Horde army in the battle of Blue Waters around 1363, the possessions of the state in the south reached the middle reaches of the Dniester. The power of the Lithuanian princes began to spread to Volhynia, the Galician land and Podolia (the region between the upper reaches of the Southern Bug and). However, here Lithuania was seriously opposed by the Kingdom of Poland and the struggle for these lands went on with varying success.

Olgerd's heir Jagiello (Jogaila, 1377–1392) fought fiercely for the grand prince's table with Keistut, and then with Vytautas. Having won, he concluded the Union of Krevo (1385), according to which he pledged to accept the Catholic faith with all his relatives and forever annex the Grand Duchy to the Kingdom of Poland. In 1386 he was baptized and under the name of Vladislav II became the Polish king. However, the incorporation of Lithuania into Poland did not last long. A few years later, Vytautas (Vytautas, 1392–1430) became the Grand Duke of Lithuania, under whom Lithuania gained de facto independence. Vitovt managed to return the lands seized by the Teutonic Order during the Lithuanian civil strife, to subdue the Smolensk land, as well as the territory in the basin of the upper Dnieper and along the Ugra. Using the strife in the Golden Horde, he, in addition, captured part of the Northern Black Sea region from the Dnieper to the Dniester. A number of new fortifications were built here.

In the XV century. the growth rate of the state territory of the Principality of Lithuania decreased significantly, and its borders stabilized. The state reached its greatest expansion under Casimir IV, who combined the thrones of the Grand Duke of Lithuania (1440–1492) and the King of Poland (since 1447). During this period, it covered the land to and from the upper Oka. In the Baltic, Lithuania owned a small stretch of coast with the town of Palanga. From it, the northern border went to the middle course of the Western Dvina and the upper reaches of the Velikaya, then, skirting Velikiye Luki from the south, crossed the Lovat and went southeast. In the east, the possessions of Lithuania and the Grand Duchy of Moscow separated Ugra and Oka from Kaluga to Lubutsk, beyond which the border turned south to the source of the Pine, and then passed along Oskol and Samara to the Dnieper. In the south, the Dnieper and the Black Sea coast served as frontiers, and in the southwest - the Dniester and the foothills of the Carpathians. From the middle course of the Western Bug, the border went to the Neman, west of Kovno, and to the Baltic.

At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. the territory of Lithuania in the east was significantly reduced. Losses were associated with the Russo-Lithuanian wars, in which the Moscow Grand Dukes were successful. Under the treaties of 1494, 1503 and 1522. the upper reaches of the Lovat (from the city of Nevel) and the Western Dvina (Toropets), the Smolensky, Vyazemsky and Belsky appanages, the Verkhovsky principalities, Bryansk, Trubchevsk, Chernigov and Novgorod Seversky, as well as the steppe territory from Putivl and Rylsk to the Oskol River, went to Moscow.

The rapprochement of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with Poland, which began under Jagiello, finally ended in 1569, when, as a result of the conclusion of the Union of Lublin, the territory of the principality was incorporated into the Kingdom of Poland, and a new state arose - the Commonwealth.

Geographically, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania consisted of several regions in which the concentration of the population was quite high. The fact is that the population of the principality was grouped in a kind of "oases", separated from each other by uninhabited or sparsely populated spaces. Such spaces were areas of dense forests or vast swamps, of which there were quite a lot in the part occupied by Lithuania. These forests separated the Lithuanian land (in the narrow sense) from Prussia, the Beresteiskaya land (Podlasie) and the Turov-Pinsk principalities. The wooded and swampy forest stretched in the north of the Zhmud land, delimiting it and the possessions of the Livonian Order; the forest space separated the Volyn land from the Beresteiskaya and from the Turov-Pinsk specific principalities; forests stretched in a strip in the basin of the Berezina and Disna, isolating the Polotsk and Vitebsk lands from Lithuania, which in turn were separated from the Smolensk land by a similar forest barrier. These forests, lying between the populated parts of the state, separating them, favored the preservation of their social and political identity.

Opinion
“The Lithuanian land itself, by whose forces the state was created under the given historical circumstances, naturally occupied in it the politically predominant and
privileged position. In addition to the original territory of the Lithuanian tribe, this area also included Russian lands, occupied already in the 13th century. and more or less
colonized by it. More closely than other regions, Russian territories adjoined their own Lithuanian land, which Lithuania inherited by right of conquest from neighboring Russian lands or, at the time of joining Lithuania, were politically broken and therefore were too weak to occupy a separate and independent position in the Lithuanian-Russian federations, which were: the so-called Rus (in a special, private sense), Podlachie or the land of Beresteyskaya, the principalities of Turov-Pinsk in Polissya. Along with these lands, own Lithuania was divided in the studied time into two voivodeships, Vilna and Trotsky, which was affected by the military-political dualism that was established in Lithuania in the 14th century, from the time of Olgerd and Keistut. The rest of the regions, i.e. the land of Polotsk, Vitebsk, Smolensk, Zhmudsk, Kiev and Volyn, Chernigov-Seversk principalities and Podolia, which joined the Grand Duchy by agreement and treaty, while maintaining local independence and originality, continued to maintain their special position from Lithuania as part of the Grand Duchy and in the time under study. This preservation of local political antiquity, in addition to the geographical position of the named regions, which favored their independence, was due to the lack of original creative aspirations in the Lithuanian government in the matter of state building, which in turn was due to the comparative political weakness and underdevelopment of the ruling tribe.

Regional and administrative division of the State of Lithuania

The administrative-territorial structure of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania has evolved throughout its history. In the XIII-XIV centuries. the specific system dominated: the vassals of the Grand Duke were at the same time his representatives in the territories subject to them. Sometimes Lithuanian princes used their sons or other representatives of the Lithuanian aristocracy as governors. At the same time, in many Russian specific principalities that were part of the Lithuanian state, Russian princely dynasties remained, ruling their “fatherland”, but recognizing vassal dependence on the Gediminids. In the XV century. the specific system was replaced directly by the grand ducal administration. Governors were appointed to the centers of the former specific principalities (as they got closer to Poland, they began to be called the terms "voivods" and "headmen" borrowed from there). In the largest former principalities there were governors: Vilna, Trotsky, Kiev, Polotsk, Vitebsk and Smolensk. The districts, which were ruled by governors, elders and other representatives of the princely administration, were called at first by the old Russian term "volost", and then the word "povet" was borrowed from Poland. By the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. There was a fairly clear system of administrative-territorial division.

In addition to the volosts of the former Vilna Principality, the volosts of the Novgorod Principality and the destinies of Slutsk, Kletsk and Mstislavsky were part of the Vilna Voivodeship. The largest cities of this territory were Vilna - the capital of the state since 1323, Novgorodok, Slutsk, Minsk, Kletsk, Mogilev, Mstislavl. Trotsky Voivodeship occupied the basin of the middle Neman and Beresteyskaya land. Its largest cities are Troki (Trakai), Koven (Kovno), Gorodno (Grodno), Belsk, Dorogichin, Berestye, Pinsk, Turov. Samogitia (Zhmudskaya land) was headed by the headman, there were no large cities here.

Volyn land consisted of several povets, the judicial and administrative power in which belonged to local feudal lords. The largest cities are Vladimir, Lutsk, Kremenets, Ostrog. The administrative district of the Kyiv governor was determined by the composition of the volosts and possessions that belonged to the Kyiv princes in the XIV-XV centuries. These included the basin of the lower Pripyat with its tributaries, the Teterev basin and the strip of the right bank of the Dnieper to the Tyasmin River, and to the east of the Dnieper - the coast from the mouth of the Sozh to Samara, almost all Donets to Oskol. At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. the eastern volosts of the voivodeship were lost. The main area of ​​concentration of cities here was the right bank of the Dnieper, where Kiev, Chernobyl, Vruchiy (Ovruch), Zhitomir, Cherkasy, Vyshgorod, Kanev, Mozyr, etc. were located. On the left bank, there were mainly old Russian centers - Chernigov, Novgorod Seversky, Starodub, Rylsk and Putivl. South of Putivl and Rylsk there were almost uninhabited steppes.

The Smolensk Voivodeship included volosts that belonged to the last Smolensk princes (many of these volosts passed into the possession of serving princes and pans), as well as the eastern judicial and administrative districts that became part of the Lithuanian-Russian state later than the Smolensk povet. The territory of the voivodeship covered the space from the upper reaches of the Lovat in the north to the source of the Oka in the south, and in the east it reached the Ugra. The largest cities in this region are Smolensk, Toropets, Vyazma, Vorotynsk, Odoev, Mosalsk, Bryansk, Lubutsk, Mtsensk. In 1503, Toropetsky, Bryansk, Mtsensk, Lubutsky povets, Belsk, Vyazemsky and Verkhovsky principalities went to Moscow, and in 1514 formally (legally in 1522) - Smolensk with the district.

The Vitebsk Voivodeship consisted of volosts and estates that belonged to the Vitebsk and Drutsk princes in the 14th century and covered the upper reaches of the Western Dvina and the Dnieper with the cities of Vitebsk, Orsha and several towns. In a similar way, the Polotsk province arose from the inheritances of the Polotsk and Lukom princes, who were located in the middle reaches of the Dvina. Perhaps only Polotsk can be called a city in the full sense of the word, the rest of the settlements were small, but there were a large number of them.

Braslav, Venitsky and Zvenigorod povets of Lithuanian Podolia (Podolia) occupied the territory from the Dniester to the lower Dnieper. Only the basin of the upper Bug was inhabited in them, where the cities and towns of Venitsa (Vinnitsa), Braslavl, Zvenigorodka and others were located.

Some modern historians, challenging the conclusions of the Imperial Geographical Society (although not having access to its archives - no one has worked with the Polotsk Chronicle after Tatishchev), consider Gediminas a descendant of the Zhmudins, who "they have long been sitting on the princely thrones of the destinies of the Polotsk principality - it was weakened and princes from the strong Lietuva (Zhmud) were invited / appointed there, so the annexation of the Polotsk lands took place voluntarily and peacefully"

A question immediately arises, to which no answer is given.
How likely is an invitation (peaceful - there was no conquest) to the princely throne in the Christian center of the leaders of the aboriginal pagans

[ “The Samogites wear bad clothes and, moreover, in the vast majority of cases they are ashen in color. They spend their life in low and, moreover, very long huts; in the middle they keep a fire, at which the father of the family sits and sees the cattle and all his household utensils. It is customary to keep cattle, without any partition, under the same roof under which they themselves live. More noble people also use buffalo horns as goblets. ... They blow up the earth not with iron, but with wood ... When they are going to plow, they usually carry with them a lot of logs with which they dig the earth"
S. Herberstein, "Notes on Muscovy", XVI century, about contemporary Zhmudins. (In the XIII century it was even sadder)]

And what guided the inhabitants, preferring them to people from neighboring (Volyn, Kyiv, Smolensk, Novgorod, Mazovia) principalities, who

• represent a powerful public entity
• closer in culture
• closer in language
• dynastically related
• live in cities, know writing and the likeness of laws

And this despite the fact that at that time in Polotsk there was "freedom of Polotsk or Venice"- objectionable rulers were quite often simply expelled.

In ancient times, Lithuanian tribes occupied the northern lands almost to the present Tambov. But then they merged with the Finno-Ugric and Slavic populations. Lithuanian tribes survived only in the Baltic states and Belarus. The central part of this range was occupied by the Lithuanian tribe or Lithuanians, Zhmud lived to the west, Prussians lived even further to the west. In the east of modern Belarusian lands, the Yatvags lived, and the golyad tribe was located in the Kolomna region.

From these disparate tribes, the Lithuanian prince Mindovg created a single principality. After his assassination by conspirators in 1263, the Lithuanian princes fought for power until the beginning of the 14th century. The winner in these internecine wars was Prince Gediminas (ruled 1316-1341). It was to him that the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 14th century owed its successful policy of conquest.

The very first conquest was Black Rus'. This is an area near the city of Grodno - the westernmost part of Rus'. Then Gediminas subjugated Minsk, Polotsk, Vitebsk. After that, the Lithuanians penetrated into Galicia and Volhynia. But Gediminas failed to conquer Galicia. It was occupied by the Poles, and the Lithuanians settled only in eastern Volhynia and began to prepare for a campaign against Kyiv.

Black Rus' on the map

At the time described, Kyiv had already lost its greatness, but Stanislav, who reigned in the city, decided to defend himself and the townspeople to the end. In 1321, he entered into battle with the army of Gediminas, but was defeated. And the victorious Lithuanians laid siege to Kyiv. The people of Kiev were forced to submit to the great Lithuanian prince on the basis of vassalage. That is, all property was left to the people of Kiev, but the Kiev prince fell into complete submission to the winners.

After the capture of Kyiv, the Lithuanian army continued its military expansion. As a result, Russian cities up to Kursk and Chernigov were conquered. So, under Gediminas and his son Olgerd, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania arose in the 14th century. It continued its policy of conquest after the death of Gediminas, when his sons Olgerd and Keistut entered the political arena.

The brothers divided spheres of influence. Keistut settled in Zhmudi and resisted the Germans, while Olgerd pursued an aggressive policy in the Russian lands. It should be noted that Olgerd and his nephew Vitovt formally accepted Orthodoxy. Lithuanian princes married Russian princesses and united around themselves the Rurikovichs from the Turov-Pinsk land. That is, they gradually included the Russian lands in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Olgerd managed to subjugate a vast territory to the Black Sea and the Don. In 1363, the Lithuanians defeated the Tatars at the Blue Waters (Sinyukha River) and captured the western part of the steppe between the Dnieper and the mouth of the Danube. Thus, they went to the Black Sea. But Lithuania continued to be sandwiched between Orthodox Russia and Catholic Europe. The Lithuanians waged active wars with the Teutonic and Livonian Orders, and therefore Poland could become their ally.

Poland at that time was in a state of deepest crisis. She was periodically tormented by both anti-papist German orders and the Czechs who captured Krakow and the lands adjacent to it. The latter were hardly driven out by the Polish king Vladislav Loketek from the Piast dynasty. In 1370, this dynasty ceased to exist, and the Frenchman Louis of Anjou became the king of Poland. He gave the crown to his daughter Jadwiga. The Polish magnates strongly advised that she should be legally married to the Lithuanian prince Jagaila, the son of Olgerd. Thus, the Poles wanted to unite Poland with Lithuania and stop German expansion.

In 1385, Jagiello married Jadwiga and became the full ruler of Lithuania and Poland in accordance with the Union of Kreva. In 1387, the population of Lithuania officially adopted the Catholic faith. However, not everyone greeted it with enthusiasm. Those Lithuanians who linked themselves with the Russians did not want to accept Catholicism.

This was taken advantage of by the cousin of Jagiello Vitovt. He led the opposition and led the struggle for the throne of the Grand Duke. This man was looking for allies among the Lithuanians, and among the Poles, and among the Russians, and among the crusaders. The opposition was so strong that in 1392 Jagiello concluded the Ostrov agreement with Vytautas. According to him, Vitovt became the Grand Duke of Lithuania, and Jagiello appropriated the title of the Supreme Duke of Lithuania.

Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the XIV century on the map

Vitovt continued to conquer Russian lands and in 1395 captured Smolensk. Soon he refused to submit to Jagiello and, thanks to an alliance with the Tatars, annexed a large territory of the Wild Field to Lithuania. So the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the XIV century significantly expanded its borders. However, in 1399 military happiness turned away from Vitovt. He lost Smolensk and part of other lands. In 1401, Lithuania was so weakened that it again entered into an alliance with Poland - the Union of Vilna-Radom.

After that, Vitovt again gained serious political weight. In 1406, an official border was established between Moscow Rus and Lithuania. The Principality of Lithuania waged a successful struggle against the Teutonic Order. In 1410, the Battle of Grunwald took place, in which the crusader knights suffered a crushing defeat. In the last years of his reign, Vytautas sought to separate Lithuania from Poland again, and for this purpose he decided to be crowned. But this idea ended in failure.

Thus, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the XIV century became a strong state militarily and politically. It united, noticeably expanded its borders and acquired high international prestige. An important historical event was the adoption of Catholicism. This step brought Lithuania closer to Europe, but moved it away from Rus'. It played a big political role in later centuries.

Alexey Starikov