Psychology exam!!!

1st and 2nd tickets

Methods of psychology are ways of studying the psyche.

They are divided into: Main and Auxiliary

Basic methods:

1. Observation is a systematic, planned perception of the behavior of another person with subsequent conclusions about his psyche.

Observation Requirement:

1. Accurate recording (date of observation, observation of behavior, analysis)

2. Letter-by-letter fixation (step-by-step)

3. Having a plan

4. Having a goal

5. System

2. An experiment is a method in which the researcher creates special conditions under which manifestations of a certain psychological function are possible.

Requirements for the experiment: (psychological function (5-6 people in observation (1 person)

1. Fast

2. Fixation

3. Must be familiar

Observation is a subjective method

Experiment is an objective method

There is a more active researcher in the experiment, but you cannot interfere in the process.

2nd ticket!!! List additional methods of psychology. Auxiliary method

1 .Study of children's activity products (drawing, crafts, composed a fairy tale)

Requirements:

1. The product is created by the child himself

2. The choice of tools and materials should be made by the child himself.

3. The child should sit alone during the creative process.

4. During the process of creating a product, you must monitor this process and record everything.

5. After creating the product, have a conversation.

2. A test is a standardized method in which each task is scored.

Advantages of the test:

1. There are answer options

2. There are points

3.Reusable

4. Fast large number of subjects

5. Objectivity

Disadvantages of the test:

1. Not all tests are suitable for a certain personality.

2. Few answer options

3. The human condition (emotional) is not taken into account

3. Sociometric method (experiment, there is a condition)

Sociometry (the study of interpersonal relationships in a group, the sociometric status of each child)

Experiment with a postcard in the locker room (look in the notebook)!!!

Addition to the Test method (sociometry)

Types of test:

1. Individual - study of the psyche of a specific person

2. Group – carried out with a group of people

3. Social – conducted with people of different ages

4. Isolated – exploration of one side of the psyche

5. Test battery – a system of test tasks is used

6. Achievement tests - reveal the degree of mastery of concepts, skills and abilities at the moment.

7. Personality tests - the study of personal characteristics.

8. Intellectual – study of mental development:

· Assessment of the level of mental development

· Identification of mental development relationships

Determination of children's mental readiness for school

9.creativity tests - research creativity

10.projective – a way of indirectly studying a person’s personal characteristics based on the results of his productive activities. (Drawing test family: Vasilyeva “Do you understand me”, “Test for children” Brian Shelby.

4.Conversation method

Conversation is a question-and-answer method (from the middle of secondary preschool age)

The conversation is aimed at having an answer, and in the conversation, identifying children’s knowledge about others and identifying the child’s moral values.

Requirements for the conversation:

1. It is subjective in nature, takes the position of a child

2. Questions should be short.

3. You need to prepare for the conversation in advance

4. Vary questions (paraphrase)

5. Letter-by-letter notation

6. With one child per method

7. The number of questions in the conversation should be directly proportional to the age of the children

8. Conversation no more than 5-7 minutes.

5. Questionnaire method:

1.Indoor

2.Open

The survey is carried out by Schnerbele.

Characteristics of the main methods of psychology

Observation method is the main method modern psychology, the essence of which is that scientific facts are collected through not interference in the life of the object, but passive contemplation of this fact

Observations can be carried out both short-term and long-term. Therefore, these types of observations are the cross-sectional method (short-term) and longitudinal (long-term)

The researcher can play the role of a passive observer (detached observation), or can actively interact with the object of study while simultaneously observing him (participant observation)

Observation can be both selective and general, of the subject and the object. For example, general of the object - observation is carried out over all members of the team. Selective of the object - only individual members of the team are included in the observation. General on the subject - all manifestations of the psyche are examined in the object of observation ( character, temperament, will) Selective by subject - only one problem (thinking or memory) is studied for the entire array (in the Object).

The use of surveillance is subject to the following conditions:

1) determination - defining the goal, task of the study;

2) natural conditions- typical surveillance conditions (so that persons do not know that they are being monitored);

3) having a plan;

4) precise definition of the object and subject of observation;

5) limitation by the researcher of the signs that are the subject of observation;

6) development by the researcher of unambiguous criteria for assessing these characteristics;

7) ensuring clarity and duration of observation

Advantages and disadvantages of the caution method

Fig 124 Advantages and disadvantages of the observation method

The observation method is used not only by scientists, but also by students, for example, when accumulating data for writing psychological characteristics of a person

Experiment is the main method of psychology, which consists in the fact that facts are obtained by creating special conditions, in which the object could most clearly demonstrate the subject being studied

There are experiments: laboratory and natural, ascertaining and molding

Laboratory testing is carried out in special psychological laboratories using appropriate equipment

A natural experiment is carried out under normal activity conditions for the person under study. A natural experiment, like a laboratory one, is carried out according to a specific program, but in such a way that the person does not know that it is being studied and the solutions to the problem are solved calmly, at a pace that is usual for her.

A constitutive experiment is aimed at fixing the existing psychological characteristics of a person, a shaping experiment is aimed at stimulating the desired mental manifestations

Tests are used as an additional method in psychological research.

A test is a test, a test, one of the ways of psychological diagnostics of the level of development mental processes and human properties. Psychological tests are a certain system tasks, the reliability of which is tested at certain age, professional, social groups and is assessed and standardized using special mathematical (correlation, factor, etc.) analysis.

There are tests for studying intellectual abilities, the level of mental development of an individual and tests of academic performance. With their help, you can find out the level of development of individual mental processes, levels of knowledge acquisition, and general mental development of the individual. Tests as standardized methods make it possible to compare the levels of development and success of experimental subjects to the requirements of school programs and professional profiles of various specialties.

In order to avoid errors when using tests as a method of psychological research, their content must correspond to the phenomenon being studied (mental activity, attention, memory, imagination, etc.) and is not required to perform special knowledge. The content of the test and instructions for its execution should be as clear and understandable as possible. The results of a test study cannot be assessed as absolute indicators of an individual’s mental capabilities. They are only indicators of the level of development of certain qualities at the time of the study under specific living conditions, training and education of the individual.

In psychology, in particular in pedagogical practice, the survey method is widely used when it is necessary to find out the level of understanding of the experimental subjects of tasks, life situations, concepts used in teaching and practical activities (natural science, technical, social) or when information is needed about interests, views, feelings, motives of activity and behavior of the individual. The most common types of surveys as a method of psychological research include conversation, interviews, questionnaires and sociometric studies.

A conversation is a purposeful conversation with a subject in order to clarify his understanding or understanding of natural and social phenomena, scientific issues, interdependence, cause and effect, beliefs, ideals, and ideological orientation. The questions posed must be clear and precise, aimed at psychological phenomena. In a conversation, it is necessary to seek not only ascertaining answers, but also explanations, motivations, that is, answers to the questions not only “what is this?”, but also “why?”, “how?”.

One of the conversation options is an interview, which is used in psychological and sociological research. The interview contains thoughts, opinions, facts from the life of the respondent, i.e. the experimental subject, his attitude to political events, situations, social phenomena and so on.

The interview may not be standardized or standardized. In a non-standardized interview, the respondent’s questions are not fully formulated and can change during the research process, but in a standardized form they represent a certain system and are formulated clearly.

Questionnaire research is one of the methods of psychological survey. Using a questionnaire, literary, artistic, sports, professional interests and preferences, motives, attitudes towards the choice of actions, deeds, types of work, in certain experiences, and their assessments are explored. To the questions posed in the questionnaire, respondents give answers in writing. Moreover, the questions are posed in such a way that the answers to them will be descriptive or alternative: “yes”, “no”, “I don’t know”, “I find it difficult to answer”, and therefore in such a way that several answer options are given in advance, among which the subject is asked to highlight one that suits his personal views and interests. The questionnaire asks questions of both a stated and motivational nature, as in a conversation and interview. The questionnaire can be personal, when the subject notes his last name and first name, provides some information about himself, and anonymous, when used, more honest answers are obtained.

Using a questionnaire survey, a large amount of material can be collected, which gives reason to consider the answers received to be quite probable. The disadvantages of this method are subjectivity, randomness of answers, and the difficulty of verifying their correctness and sincerity.

Sociometric research, or the selection method, is used to clarify relationships in a team, the evaluative attitudes of experimental subjects to others, and to give advantages to some members of a team or group over others when choosing a leader or friend. The basis for evaluative attitude and choice is a feeling of sympathy or antipathy towards others. In psychology, the sociometric technique is used to study group differentiation, when group members are asked to answer questions like: “Who would you like to be friends with?”, “Who would you choose as a group leader?” The choice can be mutually positive, mutually negative, or positive or negative on the part of the group member and negative (positive) on the part of the one he would choose.

The number of positive and negative choices is recorded on the matrix, after which their percentage is calculated. With the help of sociometric research it is possible to identify real place personality in a team with its business qualities, popularity, interpersonal relationships.

The method of analyzing the products of activity is based on the fact that the results of a person’s work include his knowledge, skills, abilities, attentiveness and observation, and character traits. Consequently, the products of activity make it possible to see in them a wide variety of mental qualities and personality traits, and the level of their development.

The products of students' activities are their written works, products, drawings, models, photographs, etc. Comparing the work, the student performs at different times, at different stages training, you can identify the level of its development, perfection of skills, accuracy, skill, intelligence, perseverance, etc. This is precisely what should be the subject of analysis of the products of activity, and not, for example, the cost of the product produced.

The products of a student’s activity can also be analyzed during the process of their creation. By observing this process, one can identify not only its quality, but also the dynamics, pace of work, dexterity in actions, and attitude to the task. These observations help to gain a deeper and more comprehensive understanding of the mental, emotional, volitional and characteristic qualities and properties of a person.

Observation is a method of psychological research consisting of deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception and recording of manifestations of behavior, obtaining judgments about subjective psychic phenomena observable.

Observation has the following main applications:

• 1) analysis of behavior during systematic changes in the situation; this allows you to trace the nature of the sequence of actions, methods of planning and monitoring activities, the accuracy of reproduction of instructions, the frequency of use of certain devices, etc.;
• 2) Observation of the work of one operator in various situations, which allows you to evaluate the impact various situations on the quality of activity;
• 3) Observation of the behavior of various operators under the same conditions; Such observation makes it possible to identify the individual characteristics of operators, to give comparative characteristics quality of activity.

By the nature of the organization, observation can be random or systematic. Observation is usually supplemented by a number of methods for objectively recording the phenomena being studied. These include, in particular, photographing or filming the operator’s working posture and facial expression, readings of instruments and indicators observed by him, directions of gaze and working movements. The observation can also be clarified using measurements. These can be measurements of the geometric dimensions of the workplace, measurements of the time and sequence of work and rest, measurements of the time for performing individual actions and movements. During the observation process, measurements of human physiological indicators are also widely carried out: pulse and respiration rates, blood pressure, electrical activity of the heart, brain, muscles, etc. Great importance When observing, it belongs to the analysis of erroneous human actions, which makes it possible to hide the causes of their occurrence and outline ways to eliminate them.

When conducting observation, it is necessary to provide such conditions as not to distract the person being observed from work, not to constrain his actions, or to make them less natural. Observation is always characterized by some subjectivity; it can create an attitude favorable to fixing a significant fact, which gives rise to the interpretation of facts in the spirit of the observer’s expectations. Increasing the objectivity of observation is facilitated by the rejection of premature generalizations and conclusions, repeated observation, and its combination with other research methods. Certain disadvantages of observation as a method of studying human behavior are its passivity and contemplation. Observation does not introduce changes into the process being studied, therefore, during it, exactly those situations that most interest the researcher may not always appear. To eliminate this drawback, one should resort to experiment.

An experiment as a method of psychological research consists in the fact that it purposefully and thoughtfully creates an artificial situation in which the property being studied is highlighted, manifested and assessed best. The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows, more reliably than all other methods, to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of the phenomenon under study with other phenomena, and to scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and its development. However, organizing and conducting a real psychological experiment that meets all the requirements in practice can be difficult, which is why it is less common in scientific research than other methods.

There are two main types of experiment: natural and laboratory. They differ from each other in that they allow one to study the psychology and behavior of people in conditions that are remote or close to reality. A natural experiment is organized and carried out in ordinary life conditions, where the experimenter practically does not interfere with the course of events, recording them as they unfold on their own. A laboratory experiment involves creating some artificial situation in which the property being studied can best be studied. The data obtained in a natural experiment best corresponds to the typical life behavior of an individual, the real psychology of people, but is not always accurate due to the lack of the experimenter’s ability to strictly control the influence of various factors on the property being studied. The results of a laboratory experiment, on the contrary, are superior in accuracy, but inferior in the degree of naturalness - correspondence to life.

Conversation is a research method specific to psychology human behavior, since in others natural sciences communication between the subject and object of research is impossible. A dialogue between two people, during which one person reveals the psychological characteristics of the other, is called the conversation method. Psychologists of various schools and directions widely use it in their research. It is enough to name Piaget and representatives of his school, humanistic psychologists, founders and followers of “depth” psychology, etc.

Conversation is included as an additional method in the structure of the experiment at the first stage, when the researcher collects primary information about the subject, gives him instructions, motivates, etc., and at the last stage - in the form of a post-experimental interview. Researchers distinguish between a clinical interview, an integral part of the “clinical method,” and a focused, face-to-face interview. The content of conversations can be recorded in full or selectively, depending on the specific goals of the study. When compiling complete protocols of conversations, it is convenient to use a tape recorder. Compliance with all necessary conditions conducting a conversation, including collecting preliminary information about the subjects, makes this method very effective means psychological research. Therefore, it is advisable that the conversation be conducted taking into account data obtained through methods such as observation and questionnaires. In this case, its goals may include checking preliminary conclusions arising from the results of psychological analysis and obtained by using these methods of primary orientation in the psychological characteristics of the subjects under study. A survey is a method in which a person answers a series of questions asked of him. There are several survey options, and each has its own advantages and disadvantages. Let's look at them.

Oral questioning is used in cases where it is desirable to observe the behavior and reactions of the person answering the questions. This type of survey allows you to penetrate deeper into human psychology than a written survey, but requires special preparation, training and, as a rule, a lot of time to conduct the research. The answers of the subjects obtained during an oral interview significantly depend on the personality of the person conducting the interview, and on the individual characteristics of the person answering the questions, and on the behavior of both persons in the interview situation.

A written survey allows you to reach more people. Its most common form is a questionnaire. But its disadvantage is that when using a questionnaire, it is impossible to take into account in advance the reactions of the respondent to the content of its questions and, based on this, change them.

A free survey is a type of oral or written survey in which the list of questions asked and possible answers to them is not limited in advance to a certain framework. Survey of this type allows you to flexibly change research tactics, the content of the questions asked, and receive non-standard answers to them. In turn, a standardized survey, in which the questions and the nature of possible answers to them are determined in advance and are usually limited within a fairly narrow framework, is more economical in time and material costs than a free survey.

An interview is a method of obtaining the necessary information through a direct and targeted conversation between the interviewer and the respondent. There are several classifications of interviews depending on the chosen basis:

• 1. for intended purpose:
  • a) interviews of opinions and attitudes;
  • b) documentary interviews.
• 2. by technique or form:
  • a) unformalized (questions, their sequence and quantity are not determined in advance);
  • b) formalized (questions and registration are standardized).
• 3. according to the procedure:
  • a) panel (repeated) - study the evolution of relationships and opinions;
  • b) clinical (deep, intensive);
  • c) multiple - one person is studied many times;
  • d) focused.

Interview procedure.

• 1. The initial stage of any interview is the establishment of socio-psychological contacts between the interviewer and the respondent. The interviewer then names the organization he represents, explains the purpose of the interview and the reasons for choosing this respondent.
• 2. The second stage - the main interview - is carried out in accordance with a questionnaire developed in advance.
• 3. The third stage of the interview is analysis of the survey results.

All questions are classified according to content, form and function.

• a) about facts, actions in the past and present, as well as products of activity;
• b) about the motives, assessments and opinions of individuals.

In group "a" the researcher can obtain objective information about the respondent, about what he knows and remembers, and in group "b" - information about what the respondent thinks, what he intends to do and why. Questions from group "b" more difficult, answers less reliable. Projective questions are of great importance for identifying motives, intentions, and attitudes, when respondents are offered a set of situations that could be encountered in life and asked to indicate the preferred behavior: “Imagine that...”.

By form:

a) open and closed;

Open questions are supposed to be answered in a free form, but this “freedom” of answers makes it difficult to process data, and closed questions require a list of alternative answers, and there may be alternatives with a fan of answers or answers with a ranked assessment.

b) direct and indirect.

Direct questions are asked directly, while indirect questions are a series of clarifying questions.

By function:

• a) filtering;
• b) control questions.

The main function of filter questions is to weed out incompetent respondents, and test questions- check the reliability of the answers received (the “lie” scale).

Areas of application of interviews:

• - at the early stages of research in order to clarify the general problem and hypothesis;
• - to develop a methodology for large surveys;
• - as the main method of collecting socio-psychological information;
• - as an additional method together with other research methods;
• - in control studies to clarify and verify data from other methods.

Questioning, like observation, is one of the most common research methods in psychology. Questionnaire surveys are usually conducted using observational data, which (along with data obtained through other research methods) is used to construct questionnaires. There are three main types of questionnaires used in psychology: these are questionnaires composed of direct questions and aimed at identifying the perceived qualities of the subjects. For example, in a questionnaire aimed at identifying the emotional attitude of schoolchildren to their age, the following question was used: “Do you prefer to become an adult now, right away, or do you want to remain a child and why?”; These are selective-type questionnaires, where subjects are offered several ready-made answers to each question on the questionnaire; The task of the subjects is to choose the most appropriate answer.

For example, to determine a student’s attitude towards various academic subjects, you can use the following question: “Which of the educational subjects- the most interesting?" And as possible answers, you can offer a list of educational subjects: "algebra", "chemistry", "geography", "physics", etc.; these are scale questionnaires; when answering questions from scale questionnaires, the test taker must not just choose the most correct of the ready-made answers, but scale (evaluate in points) the correctness of the proposed answers. So, for example, instead of answering “yes” or “no”, subjects can be offered a five-point answer scale:

• 5 - definitely yes;
• 4 - more yes than no;
• 3 - not sure, don’t know;
• 2 - no more than yes;
• 1 - definitely not.

There is no difference between these three types of questionnaires fundamental differences, all of them are just different modifications of the survey method. However, if the use of questionnaires containing direct (and even more so indirect) questions requires a preliminary qualitative analysis of the answers, which significantly complicates the use of quantitative methods for processing and analyzing the data obtained, then scale questionnaires are the most formalized type of questionnaires, since they allow for more accurate quantitative analysis of survey data.

The indisputable advantage of the survey method is the rapid acquisition of mass material, which allows one to trace a number of general changes depending on the nature of the educational process, etc. The disadvantage of the survey method is that it allows revealing, as a rule, only the most upper layer factors: materials, using questionnaires and questionnaires (composed of direct questions to subjects), cannot give the researcher an idea of ​​​​many patterns and causal dependencies related to psychology. Questioning is a means of first orientation, a means of preliminary reconnaissance. To compensate for the noted shortcomings of questioning, the use of this method should be combined with the use of more meaningful research methods, as well as conducting repeated surveys, masking the true purposes of the surveys from the subjects, etc.

Testing is a method of psychological activity that uses standardized tasks and questions - tests that have a certain scale of values. Used for standardized measurement of individual differences. They make it possible to determine, with a known probability, the individual’s current level of development of the necessary skills, knowledge, personal characteristics, etc. Testing assumes that the subject performs a certain activity: this can be solving a problem, drawing, telling a story based on a picture, etc. - depending on the technique used. During the testing process, a certain test takes place, based on the results of which conclusions are drawn about the presence, characteristics and level of development of certain properties. Individual tests are standard sets of tasks and material with which the test taker works; the procedure for presenting tasks is also standard, although in some cases certain degrees of freedom are provided for the test taker - the right to ask an additional question, build a conversation in connection with the material, etc. The procedure for evaluating results is also standard. This standardization makes it possible to compare the results of different subjects.

The main areas of testing are:

• 1) education;
• 2) prof. preparation and selection;
• 3) psychological counseling;
• 4) clinical practice.

However, in any of these areas, the testing process can be divided into three stages:

• 1) test selection;
• 2) testing;
• 3) interpretation of test results.

At all stages, the participation of a qualified psychologist or, in extreme cases, a specially trained person is necessary.

Projective techniques are a group of techniques designed to diagnose personality. They are characterized by a global approach to personality assessment, rather than identifying individual traits. The most significant feature of projective techniques is the use of vague stimuli, which the subject must himself supplement, interpret, develop, etc. Thus, subjects are asked to interpret the content of plot pictures, complete unfinished sentences, give an interpretation of vague outlines, etc. Unlike intelligence tests, answers to tasks in projective techniques cannot be correct or incorrect; A wide range of different solutions is possible. It is assumed that the nature of the answers is determined by the personality characteristics of the subject, which are “projected” onto the answers. The purpose of projective techniques is relatively disguised, which reduces the ability of the subject to give answers that allow him to make the desired impression about himself.

These methods are mainly individual in nature and for the most part are subject-based or form-based.

It is customary to distinguish the following groups of projective techniques:

• - structuring techniques: forming incentives, giving them meaning;
• - design techniques: creating a meaningful whole from designed parts;
• - interpretation techniques: interpretation of any event, situation;
• - techniques - additions: completing a sentence, story, story;
• - catharsis techniques: implementation play activity in specially organized conditions;
• - methods of studying expression: drawing on a free or given topic;
• - methods for studying impression: preference for some stimuli (as the most desirable) over others.

AH subject. The importance of art in the development of natural science, technology, and economics.

OH- the science of methods for identifying chemical compounds, principles and methods for determining the chemical composition of substances and their structure. The subject of the Academy of Arts is the development of analysis methods and the practical implementation of analyses, as well as a broad study of the theoretical foundations analytical methods. This includes the study of the forms of existence of elements and their compounds in various environments and states of aggregation, determination of the composition and stability of coordination compounds, optical, electrochemical and other characteristics of the substance, study of the rates of chemical reactions, determination of metrological characteristics of methods, etc. .

AH-yay scientific basis chemical analysis.

The theoretical basis of AH is the fundamental laws of natural science, such as the periodic law of D.I. Mendeleev, the laws of conservation of mass of matter and energy, constancy of the composition of matter, acting masses, etc.

Obtaining pure and ultra-pure substances that form the basis of many industries new technology, would have been impossible without the development of appropriate analytical control methods.

Chemical analysis. Types of analysis objects.

Chemical analysis- this is the experimental acquisition of data on the composition and properties of an object.

Objects of analysis: Natural- water, air, soil, mineral raw materials, oil, minerals. Industrial-organic and inorganic origin metals and alloys. Clean islands. Biomedical.

AH methods. Hybrid methods. The concept of analysis methodology.

1. Sampling - obtaining a representative sample when analyzing any object. (from the lake throughout, from different depths)

2. Sample preparation - transferring the sample to a state convenient for analysis.

3. Separation and concentration - allow you to separate components during the analysis process (extraction, precipitation, sublimation, distillation, chromatography)

4. Detection methods (identification) (determine which components are part of the object)

5. Determination methods - determine quantitative content.

Hybrid methods combine both separation and determination. (Example: chromatography)

Method of analysis- a universal and theoretically based method for determining the composition of the analyzed object.

The analysis method is based on certain principles of the relationship between the composition of a substance and its properties.

Method of analysis - detailed description analyzing an object using a specific method.

4. Types of analysis: elemental, functional, molecular, material, phase.

Elemental analysis- allows you to determine which elements and in what quantitative ratio are included in the composition of a given sample. Molecular analysis- allows you to determine the presence of individual chemical compounds characterized by a certain molecular weight. Structural analysis - allows you to determine the arrangement of atoms or molecules in a crystal. Functional analysis- allows you to determine the content of individual functional groups in the structure of a substance. Phase analysis- allows you to determine individual structural components of heterogeneous systems that differ in properties, physical structure and are limited from each other by interfaces.

Classification of analytical methods. Chemistry, physical and biological methods of analysis.

Chemistry is based on chemistry and we draw conclusions visually, assessing any changes.

Physical-instrumental detection of changes in the analytical system.

The biological analytical signal is generated due to the biologically sensitive part, which is in contact with the object of analysis.

Requirements for methods of analysis.

1.Right– a parameter characterizing the closeness of the experimental and true values ​​of the measured quantity. It is characterized by a systematic error, which depends on the operation of the device, the individual characteristics of the analyst, errors in calculations and methodological errors.

2. Reproducibility– parameter reflecting random measurement errors and showing

degree of scatter of repeated (parallel) determinations. This is a measure of how repeatable results are when an analysis is performed multiple times.

Reproducibility determines the probability that subsequent measurements will fall within a specified interval centered on the average value. It can be assessed using any available sample, whereas to evaluate the correctness of the method it is necessary to have standard samples.

Standard samples– samples of substances whose composition is typical for a certain class of analyzed materials are determined with high accuracy and does not change during storage . An indispensable condition for the use of a standard sample in chemical analysis is the maximum similarity of the composition and properties of the standard sample and the analyzed sample. They are used for calibration and verification of analytical instruments and methods. They are of particular importance when using the physical method of analysis (example: analysis of cast iron and steel alloys).

3. Analysis accuracy is determined by the sum of accuracy and reproducibility.

4. Detection limit (DL) is the minimum concentration of a substance that can be determined by this method with some permissible error: (mol/dm3; μg/cm3;%).

5. Sensitivity–

6.–

7.Expressiveness.

8.Simplicity.

9.Economical.

10.Locality.

11.Automation.

12.Distance.

In production conditions, where analyzes are widespread, the simplest, fastest methods are chosen if they provide the required accuracy and a sufficiently low detection limit. The choice of method in each specific case is determined by the goals and objectives of the study, as well as production capabilities (availability of chemical reagents and instruments).

7. Macro-, micro- and ultramicroanalysis.

The range of concentrations (contents) of the substance in the analyzed sample and the generally accepted term characterizing the amount of the component being determined are interrelated:

a) if the mass fraction of the analyzed substance is more than 10%, then we are talking about the determination (analysis) of the main component;

b) if the mass fraction of the analyzed substance is 0.01% -10%, then they talk about determining impurities;

c) if the mass fraction of the analyzed substance is in the range (10 -6 -10 -2)%, then trace amounts are analyzed (determination of traces of the substance).

9. Basic analytical characteristics: sensitivity and selectivity of determinations.

Sensitivity– a parameter characterizing the change in the analytical signal, for example, optical density or voltage, with a change in the concentration of the component being determined, i.e. this is the tangent of the slope of the calibration graph.

Selectivity, selectivity– the ability to determine a substance (ion) in the presence of others.

Related information.

Objectivity should be the basic principle of psychological research. Psychodiagnostic methods of different types adhere to different requirements, for example, measurement methods must satisfy the following requirements:

• The purpose, subject and scope of application must be formulated unambiguously, the scope of application, the contingent of subjects must be clearly identified, and the purposes of use must be specified;
• The implementation procedure is specified by an unambiguous algorithm;
• Processing procedure. It must use statistically sound counting and standardization methods test score. Diagnostic judgments or conclusions must be accompanied by an indication of the probabilistic level of statistical confidence;
• Test scales must be checked for representativeness, reliability and validity in a given field of application;
• Self-report procedures should be equipped with reliability controls to screen out unreliable protocols;
• The main methodological organization must maintain a bank of data collected on the test for the purpose of periodic correction of all method standards.

Requirements for expert methods

• Instructions for use are provided with an indication of the qualifications of experts, their required amount to obtain reliable data using the method of independent assessments;
• All instructions for use must undergo special tests to ensure that they are unambiguously carried out by experts in relation to the reference data set;
• The results processing procedure must include documentation of Intermediate Processing Stages so that another expert can double-check the final result;
• It is important for user developers to be able to replicate a normative study measuring expert agreement on a reference dataset;
• The parent organization must have a data bank that provides training and retraining for users.

Any technique will not be a professional psychodiagnostic technique if it does not satisfy the listed requirements. All methods within the framework of the parent methodological organizations must undergo certification. The responsibilities of the main methodological organizations include compiling libraries of “certified psychodiagnostic techniques”.

Instructional literature that has not been certified is considered unsuitable for use in practical psychology, although the possibility of its use for research purposes is not excluded.

User requirements

Users include professional psychologists and non-psychologists. They have different requirements. User psychologist:

• Know and apply in practice the general theoretical and methodological principles of Psychodiagnostics, master the basics of differential psychometrics. It is mandatory for a psychologist to follow the current methodological literature on psychodiagnostics. In addition, he must have a personal library of techniques used in this area. It is important to independently maintain a card index;
• A professional psychologist is responsible for the decisions he makes based on testing. It ensures their representativeness and predictive validity. Must warn possible mistakes allowed by non-professionals;
• Compared to non-professionals, he enjoys a preferential right to conduct psychodiagnostics in a given area, using protocols in accordance with professional and ethical principles and the interests of psychology. Has the right to preferential receipt teaching materials and their acquisition as individual professional property;
• It provides the necessary level of diagnostic reliability using other standardized techniques and the method of independent expert assessments;
• The selection of methods for a comprehensive research program is based on the requirement maximum efficiency diagnostics – maximum reliability at minimal costs;
• Engaged in scientific and methodological work, analyzing the effectiveness of applying the methodology in a given area. As a rule, this work involves operational contacts with the main methodological organization;
• To carry out standard examination techniques, ensures the most careful compliance with all requirements. Interpretation, scoring, forecast are carried out in strict accordance with methodological instructions. In using the technique, the psychologist has no right to deviate from the standard adopted for a certain time;
• The psychodiagnostic information received from the subject is kept strictly confidential. For whom and for what purpose the information received can be used, the psychologist is obliged to warn the subject, and not to hide, what decisions can be made on the basis of psychological diagnostics;
• The psychologist is obliged to maintain professional secrets;
• Along with the probable hypothesis, consider alternative diagnostic hypotheses;
• About all violations of the normative principles of psychodiagnostics.

The psychologist is obliged to inform the regional or central bodies of the Society of Psychologists. Has the right to personally prevent the incorrect and unethical use of psychodiagnostics.

To be confident in the reliability of the results of psychodiagnostic research, it is necessary that the psychodiagnostic methods used be scientifically substantiated, i.e., meet a number of requirements. These requirements are: 1. Validity –“worthiness”, “suitability”, “conformity”. Theoretical validity - determined by the correspondence of the indicators of the quality being studied, obtained using this technique, to the indicators obtained using other techniques. The validity of the technique is checked and clarified in the process of its sufficiently long use.2. Reliability- characterizes the possibility of obtaining stable indicators using this technique. The reliability of a psychodiagnostic technique can be established in two ways: - by comparing the results obtained by this technique by different people - by comparing the results obtained by the same technique under different conditions.3. Unambiguity methodology - characterized by the extent to which the data obtained with its help reflect changes exactly and only that property , for the evaluation of which this technique applies.4. Accuracy– reflects the ability of the technique to subtly respond to the slightest changes in the assessed property that occur during a psychodiagnostic experiment.

4. concept of activity. Leontev's theory of activity. Leading activities in preschool and school age.

Activity- this is the active interaction of a person with the environment, as a result of which he achieves a consciously set goal that arose as a result of the emergence of a certain need or motive in him.

The theory of activity in the works of A.N. Leontyev. A.N. Leontiev put forward the concept of activity, which is currently one of the recognized theoretical directions of modern psychology. Scheme of activity: (activity – action – operation – psychophysiological functions), correlated with the structure of the motivational sphere (motive – goal – condition). The main concepts of this theory are activity, consciousness and personality. Human activity has a complex hierarchical structure. It consists of several nonequilibrium levels. The top level is the level of special activities, then comes the level of actions, followed by the level of operations, and the lowest is the level of psychophysiological functions. The central place in this hierarchical structure is occupied by action, which is the main unit of activity analysis. Structure of activity: Needs are the source of personality activity; they force a person to act actively. This is a person’s awareness of the need for something that he needs to maintain the body and develop his personality.

Types of needs:- natural (natural) and social (spiritual); - conscious and unconscious.

Target- what the activity is directly aimed at. Motive- this is a form of manifestation of a need, an incentive for a certain activity, the object for the sake of which the activity is carried out.

Movement is a motor function of a living organism, the simplest component of activity. Types of movements:- involuntary and voluntary, - congenital and acquired. Actions represent a set of movements that have a goal and are aimed at a specific object (subject). Actions are always social and are usually performed consciously. Types of actions:- subject; - mental, strong-willed; - actions aimed at other people - an act (or misdemeanor). Main activities: communication, play, work, learning They are present in the life of every person, the development of the psyche and personality takes place in them. Goals and motives. Interaction. Concept of leading activities A.N. Leontyev.

Mastering activities: abilities, skills, habits. Skill- This successful way performing activities.

Skills- These are partially automated actions that are formed as a result of exercises. Types of skills: walking, running, writing, thinking, sensory, behavioral skills, etc.

Habit- this is the need to perform the appropriate action. Types of habits: professional, moral, hygienic, aesthetic, educational, cultural behavior, etc. Useful and bad habits.

5. The concept of temperament. Temperament theory. Psychological characteristics children with different character types.

Temperament as a characteristic individual properties person. Temperament- a personality trait that gives a unique color to all activities and behavior of people. Temperament- individual characteristics of a person that determine the dynamics of his psychological activity and behavior. Temperament properties: activity and emotionality.

Theory of temperament: 1. Humoral theory. Back in ancient Greece, the physician Hippocrates proposed the concept of temperament. Temperament depends on the ratio of the four body fluids and which one predominates: blood (in Latin "sangve"), mucus (in Greek "phlegm"), red-yellow bile (in Greek "chole"), black bile (in Greek "melaine chole"). The mixture of these fluids, Hippocrates argued, underlies the main types of temperaments: sanguine, choleric, melancholic and phlegmatic. Dove, in general, correct description basic temperaments, Hippocrates could not give a scientific basis for them. 2. Constitutional theory. It arose in the 20th century (Kretschmer, Sheldon). main idea- establishing a connection between temperament and a person’s physique. Sheldon argued that body type depends on how a person’s intrauterine development proceeded. Kretschmer correlated certain personality types with types of body structure.

3. Physiological theory. I.P. Pavlov studying work cerebral hemispheres brain, established that all traits of temperament depend on the characteristics of a person’s higher nervous activity. He proved that among representatives of different temperaments, typological differences in the strength, balance and mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex change. Various relationships between the indicated properties of nervous processes were used as the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity. Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition I.P. Pavlov identified four types of nervous system, which correspond to four temperaments: 1. Sanguine - strong, balanced, agile.2. Phlegmatic - strong, balanced, sedentary. 3. Choleric - strong, unbalanced. 4. Melancholic - weak processes of excitation and inhibition.

Psychological characteristics of people of different types of temperament. Sanguine- fast, agile, responds emotionally to all impressions; feelings are bright, but unstable and are easily replaced by opposite feelings. A sanguine person quickly establishes social contact. He is almost always the initiator in communication, immediately responds to the desire to communicate on the part of another person, but his attitude towards people can be changeable and fickle. He feels like a fish in water in a big company strangers, and the new, unusual environment only excites him Phlegmatic person- slow, balanced and calm, who is not easily emotionally affected and cannot be enraged; his feelings hardly manifest themselves on the outside. In relationships with other people, they are calm and stable in their emotions. But under certain conditions, indifference to work, to the surrounding life, and lack of will may develop. The phlegmatic establishes social contacts slowly, shows little of his feelings and does not notice for a long time that someone is looking for a reason to get acquainted with him. But he is stable and constant in his attitude towards people. He loves to be in a narrow circle of old acquaintances, in familiar surroundings. Choleric- fast, impetuous, with strong, flaming feelings that are clearly reflected in expressive facial expressions, gestures, and speech. He is often prone to violent emotional outbursts. Choleric people experience rapid mood swings and imbalance. Having started a business with enthusiasm, the choleric quickly cools down, interest in the work disappears, and he continues without inspiration, and sometimes even abandons it. People of choleric temperament can be difficult to communicate with. Melancholic- does not respond emotionally to everything. He has a small variety of emotional experiences, but these experiences are distinguished by significant depth, strength and duration. He does not respond to everything, but when he does respond, he experiences it strongly, although he expresses little of his feelings outwardly. In a familiar, calm environment, people of this type work very productively and are distinguished by the depth and content of their emotional and moral behavior and attitude towards the people around them. Melancholic people are very touchy and have a hard time dealing with failures and insults. They are prone to isolation, loneliness, feel awkward in a new, unusual environment, and are often embarrassed. In most cases, there is a combination of features of one temperament with features of another. Temperament type cannot be “good” or “bad”.