The theory of activity in domestic science was developed by the psychologist A. N. Leontiev (1903-1979). He described the structure of human activity, highlighting in it the goal, means and result.

The subject is the one who carries out the activity, the source of activity, the actor. Since, as a rule, a person shows activity, then most often it is he who is called the subject. The subject of activity must be a person, a group of people, an organization, a state body.

An object - ??? what the activity is aimed at. So, for example, the subject of cognitive activity is any kind of information, the subject of educational activity is knowledge, skills, and the subject of labor activity is the created material product. The object of activity can be a natural material or object (land in agricultural activities), another person (a student as an object of study) or the subject himself (in the case of self-education, sports training).

Purpose of activity

The goal of an activity is its product. It can be a real physical object created by a person, certain knowledge, skills and abilities acquired in the course of activity, a creative result (thought, idea, theory, work of art).

The goals that a person sets in his activity can be distant and close. A goal is the expected result of an action by which a person intends to satisfy a particular need. Therefore, it is necessary to distinguish between the goal as an objective (objective result) and as a subjective mental (intended) phenomenon.

The emergence of aspiration is itself a process. First comes the need. This is such a level of uncertainty when it is already clear to a person that he needs to do something, but what exactly is not realized enough. With such uncertainty, there are various options for satisfying the need. At this level of uncertainty, there is still no clear understanding of the means, ways to achieve the goal. Each of the conscious possibilities is reinforced or refuted by different motives.

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The motive of activity is that which induces it, for the sake of which it is carried out. The motive is usually a specific need, which is satisfied in the course and with the help of this activity. The motives of human activity can be very different: organic, functional, material, social, spiritual.

Organic motives are aimed at satisfying the natural needs of the body - the production of food, housing, clothing, etc.

Functional motives are satisfied with the help of various cultural forms of activity, such as games and sports.

Material motives induce a person to activity aimed at creating household items, various things and tools, directly in the form of products that serve natural needs.

Social motives give rise to various activities aimed at taking a certain place in society, gaining recognition and respect from the surrounding people.

Spiritual motives underlie those activities that are associated with self-improvement of a person.

In everyday life, the words “motive” and “stimulus” are often not distinguished, but these are different concepts. A motive is any mental phenomenon that has become an incentive to action, deed or activity.

A stimulus is an objective phenomenon that acts on a person and causes a response. The most significant thing is that the motive is a reflection of the stimulus, processed by the personality. The same stimulus for different personalities can be reflected as different motives.

Although activity is a function of a person as a whole: both as a person and as an organism, its purposefulness and motivation are determined by the personality. Therefore, in animals, in newborns and in "insane", mentally ill, there is no activity, but only behavior - as an objectification of their psyche. Activity is the objectification of consciousness.

Methods and means to achieve the goal

A way or method of achieving a goal is an external form of implementation of an activity. And it should be adequate to the purpose. Compliance of methods and methods with the result obtained is a qualitative characteristic of the process. Actions can lead to a result, then they form an expedient process. Actions at the level of affects, habits, false beliefs, delusions in relation to the goal are inappropriate and lead to unpredictable results. The means must match the ends in two senses.

First, the means must be proportionate to the end. In other words, they cannot be insufficient (otherwise the activity will be fruitless) or excessive (otherwise energy and resources will be wasted). For example, one cannot build a house if there are not enough materials for it; it is also pointless to buy materials several times more than you need to build it.

Secondly, the means must be moral: immoral means cannot be justified by the nobility of the end. If goals are immoral, then all activities are immoral.

Goal Achievement Process

Action is an element of activity that has a relatively independent and conscious task. An activity is made up of individual actions. For example, teaching activity consists of preparing and giving lectures, conducting seminars, preparing assignments, etc.

Types of actions (classification by the German sociologist, philosopher, historian M. Weber (1864--1920) depending on the motives of actions):

• 1) Purposeful action - characterized by a rationally set and thoughtful goal. The individual acts purposefully, whose behavior is focused on the goal, means and side effects of his actions.
• 2) Value-rational action - is characterized by a conscious determination of one's direction and a consistently planned orientation towards it. But its meaning does not consist in achieving any goal, but in the fact that the individual follows his convictions about duty, dignity, beauty, piety, etc.
• 3) Affective (from lat. affectus - emotional excitement) action - due to the emotional state of the individual. He acts under the influence of passion if he seeks to immediately satisfy his need for revenge, pleasure, devotion, etc.
• 4) Traditional action - based on a long habit. Often this is an automatic reaction to a habitual irritation in the direction of a once learned setting.

The basis of activity is the actions of the first two types, since only they have a conscious goal and are creative in nature. Affects and traditional actions can only exert some influence on the course of activity as auxiliary elements.

Result of activity

The result is the final result, the state in which the need is satisfied (in whole or in part). For example, the result of study can be knowledge, skills, the result of labor - goods, the result of scientific activity - ideas and inventions. The result of activity can be the person himself, because in the course of activity he develops and changes.

Now let's think about the solution of task 20.

The section "Spiritual culture of man and society" is devoted to tasks from the fourth to the sixth - this is mandatory. But in other tasks this topic is also presented. For example, where you need to work with graphic data (with a diagram that reflects the results of a sociological survey), or where you need to insert missing words into the text. Or in the task of finding features of difference and features of similarity. Or to highlight statements of a theoretical, factual and evaluative nature. All these tasks can be in any of the sections of social science.

In the demo version of the USE in 2016, just the twentieth task was compiled on the basis of the material from the section "Man, Society, Spiritual Culture". I propose to solve it now.

Read the text below with a number of words missing. Choose from the proposed list of words that you want to insert in place of the gaps.

“The motive of ____ (A) is what motivates it, for the sake of which it is carried out. A specific ____ (B) usually acts as an incentive, which is satisfied in the course and with the help of activities. This is a certain form of connection between living organisms and the world, necessary for the existence of ____ (B), a social group and society as a whole.

____ (D) needs are caused by the biological nature of man. These are the needs of people in everything that is necessary for their existence, development and reproduction. ____ (D) needs are related to the fact that a person belongs to society, occupies a certain place in it, participates in work activities and communication with other people. ____ (E) needs are associated with a person's knowledge of the world around him, his place in it and the meaning of his existence. Each of the groups of needs corresponds to a certain type of activity.

The words in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word can only be used once. Choose sequentially one word after another, mentally filling in each gap. Please note that there are more words in the list than you need to fill in the gaps.

List of terms:

need;

activity;

1. social;

   natural;

   authentic (reasonable);

   individual;

2. ideal (spiritual).

The table below lists the letters that represent the missing words. Write in the table under each letter the number of the word you have chosen.

Answer:

How are these tasks carried out?

You can see that there is a letter after each gap. Missing six words or phrases. They are labeled A, B, C, D, D, and E.

Below the text are the terms from which you need to make a choice. And if passes six, then the terms nine. It means that three terms are redundant. You can only insert them once. And in the plate under each letter you must write the corresponding number.

Also note that the words in the list are given in nominative case. Moreover, if we are talking about adjectives, they are given in the masculine gender, but in the text they can also be used in the feminine gender. This also needs to be taken into account. Well, at least from the context we can guess what needs to be inserted: a noun or an adjective. This can make it easier to find the right word.

So, we read carefully.

The motive ____ (A) is what motivates it, for the sake of which it is carried out.

We need to choose HER. Her motive encourages. You can, in general, immediately guess that we are talking about the motive of actions or activities. Looking for something suitable. At number two we find activity. We choose two.

A specific ____ (B) usually acts as an incentive, which is satisfied in the course and with the help of activities.

With the help of activity, a person will satisfy his needs. It is the need that is one of the most common motives of activity. We choose one.

This is a certain form of communication between living organisms and the world, necessary for the existence of ____ (B), a social group and society as a whole.

So, in ascending order: less, more, more - that means a person. But we do not have a person in the list of terms, but there is an individual. We choose eight.

____ (D) needs are caused by the biological nature of man. These are the needs of people in everything that is necessary for their existence, development, reproduction.

These are biological needs. Otherwise, you can call them "natural needs". We choose five.

____ (D) needs are related to the fact that a person belongs to society, occupies a certain place in it, participates in work activities and communication with other people.

Society is otherwise called "society". Social needs are called social. We choose the fourth answer.

____ (E) needs are associated with a person's knowledge of the world around him, his place in it and the meaning of his existence.

Knowledge refers to spiritual needs. In this case, you are offered both options for the name of this group of needs - ideal (spiritual). We choose nine.

As a result, we write in the table: 2, 1, 8, 5, 4, 9.

Good luck on your exam!

Activity is an active-transformative form of human interaction with the world.

Human activity has the following Main characteristics: motive, purpose, subject, and structure.

motive activity is called that which induces it, for the sake of which it is carried out. The motive is usually a specific need, which is satisfied in the course and with the help of this activity. The motives of human activity can be very different: organic, functional, material, social, spiritual. Organic motives are aimed at satisfying the natural needs of the organism (in humans, at creating conditions that are most conducive to this). Such motives are associated with the growth, self-preservation and development of the organism. This is the production of food, housing, clothing, etc. Functional motives are satisfied with the help of various cultural forms of activity, such as games and sports. Material motives induce a person to activity aimed at creating household items, various things and tools, directly in the form of products that serve natural needs. Social motives give rise to various activities aimed at taking a certain place in society, gaining recognition and respect from the surrounding people. Spiritual motives underlie those activities that are associated with self-improvement of a person. The type of activity is usually determined by its dominant motive (dominant because any human activity is polymotivated, that is, it is stimulated by several different motives).

As goals activity is its product. It can be a real physical object created by a person, certain knowledge, skills and abilities acquired in the course of activity, a creative result (thought, idea, theory, work of art).

The purpose of an activity is not equivalent to its motive, although sometimes the motive and purpose of an activity may coincide with each other. Different activities that have the same goal (end result) may be motivated and supported by different motives. On the contrary, a number of activities with different ultimate goals may be based on the same motives. For example, reading a book for a person can act as a means of satisfying the material (demonstrate knowledge and get a well-paid job for it), social (show off knowledge in the circle of significant people, win their favor), spiritual (expand one's horizons, rise to a higher level of moral development). ) needs. Activities as varied as acquiring fashionable, prestigious items, reading literature, caring for appearance, developing good manners may ultimately pursue the same goal: to win someone's favor at all costs.

Subject activity is what it directly deals with. So, for example, the subject of cognitive activity is any kind of information, the subject of educational activity is knowledge, skills, and the subject of labor activity is the created material product.

Every activity has a certain structure. It usually identifies actions and operations as the main components of the activity.

action called a part of the activity that has a completely independent, human-conscious goal. For example, an action included in the structure of cognitive activity can be called receiving a book, reading it; the actions that are part of the labor activity can be considered familiarity with the task, the search for the necessary tools and materials, the development of the project, the technology for manufacturing the item, etc.; actions associated with creativity are the formulation of the idea, its phased implementation in the product of creative work.

operation name the way in which the action is carried out. How many different ways to perform an action, so many different operations can be distinguished. The nature of the operation depends on the conditions for performing the action, on the skills and abilities available to the person, on the available tools and means for performing the action. Different people, for example, remember information and write differently. This means that they carry out the action of writing a text or memorizing material using various operations. Operations preferred by a person characterize his individual style of activity.

The motivation of activity in the course of its development does not remain unchanged. So, for example, other motives may appear in labor or creative activity over time, and the former fade into the background. Sometimes an action, previously included in the activity, can stand out from it and acquire an independent status, turn into an activity with its own motive. In this case, we note the birth of a new activity.

With age, as a person develops, a change in the motivation of his activity occurs. If a person changes as a person, then the motives of his activity are transformed. The progressive development of man is characterized by the movement of motives towards their ever greater spiritualization (from organic to material, from material to social, from social to creative, from creative to moral).

Every human activity has external and internal components. Internal include anatomical and physiological structures and processes involved in the management of activity by the central nervous system, as well as psychological processes and conditions included in the regulation of activity. External components include a variety of movements associated with the practical implementation of activities.

The ratio of internal and external components of activity is not constant. With the development and transformation of activity, a systematic transition of external components to internal ones is carried out. He is accompanied by them interiorization and automation. In the event of any difficulties in the activity, during its restoration, associated with violations of internal components, a reverse transition occurs - exteriorization: reduced, automated components of activity unfold, manifest themselves outwardly, internal ones again become external, consciously controlled.

Main activities.

Communication- the first type of activity that occurs in the process of individual development of a person, followed by play, learning and work. All these activities are of a developmental nature, i.e. when the child is included and actively participates in them, his intellectual and personal development takes place. Communication is considered as an activity aimed at the exchange of information between communicating people. It also pursues the goals of establishing mutual understanding, good personal and business relations, providing mutual assistance and teaching and educational influence of people on each other. Communication can be direct mediated, verbal non-verbal. In direct communication, people are in direct contact with each other, know and see each other, directly exchange verbal or non-verbal information, without using any auxiliary means for this. In mediated communication, there are no direct contacts between people. They exchange information either through other people or through means of recording and reproducing information (books, newspapers, radio, television, telephone, fax, etc.).

A game - this is a type of activity that does not result in the production of any material or ideal product (with the exception of business and design games for adults and children). Games often have the character of entertainment, they are aimed at getting rest. Sometimes games serve as a means of symbolic relaxation of tensions that have arisen under the influence of the actual needs of a person, which he is not able to weaken in any other way.

Doctrine acts as a type of activity, the purpose of which is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. Teaching can be organized and carried out in special educational institutions. It can be unorganized and occur along the way, in other activities as their side, additional result. In adults, learning can acquire the character of self-education. Features of educational activity are that it directly serves as a means of psychological development of the individual.

occupies a special place in the system of human activity. work. It was thanks to labor that man built a modern society, created objects of material and spiritual culture, transformed the conditions of his life in such a way that he discovered the prospects for further, practically unlimited development. First of all, the creation and improvement of tools of labor is associated with labor.

Activity development.

When talking about the development of human activity, they mean the following aspects:

1. Phylogenetic development of the system of human activity.

2. The inclusion of a person in various activities in the process of his individual development (ontogenesis).

3. Changes occurring within individual activities as they develop.

4. Differentiation of activities, in the course of which others are born from some activities due to the isolation and transformation of individual actions into independent types of activity.

In the process of development of activity, its internal transformations take place. First, the activity is enriched with new subject content. Its object and, accordingly, the means of satisfying the needs associated with it are new objects of material and spiritual culture. Secondly, the activity has new means of implementation, which accelerate its course and improve the results. So, for example, the assimilation of a new language expands the possibilities for recording and reproducing information; familiarity with higher mathematics improves the ability for quantitative calculations. Thirdly, in the process of activity development, individual operations and other components of activity are automated, they turn into skills and abilities. Finally, fourthly, as a result of the development of activity, new types of activity can be separated from it, separated and further independently developed. This mechanism for the development of activity was described by A.N. Leontiev and was called shifting the motive to the goal. The operation of this mechanism appears to be as follows. Some fragment of activity - action - may initially have a goal perceived by the individual, which in turn acts as a means to achieve another goal that serves to satisfy the need. This action and the corresponding goal are attractive to the individual insofar as they serve the process of satisfying the need, and only for this reason. In the future, the goal of this action may acquire an independent value, become a need or a motive. In this case, they say that in the course of the development of activity, a shift of the motive to the goal occurred and a new activity was born.

Personality

Correlation of the concepts individual, personality, individuality.

Individual– This concept expresses the ancestral affiliation of a person. Being born as an individual, a person gradually acquires a special social quality, becomes a personality.

Individuality- a combination of the psychological characteristics of a person that make up his originality, his difference from other people.

Personality as a systemic social quality acquired by an individual in objective activity and communication, it characterizes the level and quality of representation of social relations in an individual. Personality is a systemic quality, because one can characterize a personality only by seeing it in the system of interpersonal relations in a joint collective activity.

The structure of personality.

The elements of the psychological structure of a personality are its psychological properties and characteristics, usually called "personality traits". The lowest level of personality is a biologically determined substructure, which includes age, sex properties of the psyche, innate properties such as the nervous system and temperament. The next substructure includes individual features of mental processes person, i.e. individual manifestations of memory, perception, sensations, thinking, abilities, depending both on innate factors and on training, development, and improvement of these qualities. Further, the level of personality is also its individual social experience which includes acquired knowledge, skills, abilities and habits. This substructure is formed mainly in the learning process and has a social character. The highest level of personality is orientation, which includes a set of stable motives that guide the activity of the individual .

Socialization of the individual.

Socialization personality is a process; personality formation in certain social conditions, the process of assimilation of social experience by a person, during which a person transforms social experience into his own values ​​and orientations, selectively introduces into his system of behavior those norms and patterns of behavior that are accepted in society or a group. The norms of behavior, norms of morality, beliefs of a person are determined by those norms that are accepted in a given society.

There are the following stages socialization:

Primary socialization, or adaptation stage (from birth to adolescence), the child learns social experience uncritically, adapts, adapts, imitates.

Individualization stage(there is a desire to distinguish oneself from others, a critical attitude to social norms of behavior). In adolescence, the stage of individualization, self-determination "the world and I" is characterized as an intermediate socialization, as it is still unstable in the outlook and character of a teenager. Adolescence (18-25 years) is characterized as a stable conceptual socialization, when stable personality traits are developed.

Integration stage(there is a desire to find one's place in society, to "fit" into society). Integration goes well if the properties of a person are accepted by the group, society.

labor stage socialization covers the entire period of a person's maturity, the entire period of his labor activity, when a person not only assimilates social experience, but also reproduces it through the active influence of a person on the environment through his activity.

post-labor stage socialization considers old age as an age that makes a significant contribution to the reproduction of social experience, to the process of passing it on to new generations.

There are also various areas of manifestation of personality:

1) interindividual- the sphere of its existence - the relationship between individuals, interpersonal relationships.

2) intraindividual- personality - a property inherent in the subject himself, personal is immersed in the inner space of the individual's being.

3) meta-individual Each individual influences the others. The characteristics of an individual can be looked for in others. Personality is personalized in other people.

Human activity has the following main characteristics: motive, target, item, structure And facilities. The motive of an activity is that which induces it, for the sake of which it is carried out.. The motive is usually a specific need, which is satisfied in the course and with the help of this activity.

Motives of human activitycan be very different; organic, functional, material, social, spiritual.

organic motives are aimed at satisfying the natural needs of the organism (in humans, at creating conditions that are most conducive to this). Such motives are associated with the growth, self-preservation and development of the organism. This - production of food, housing, clothing and so on.

Functional motives are satisfied with the help of various cultural forms of activity, such as games and sports.

material motives induce a person to activity aimed at creating household items, various things and tools, directly in the form of products that serve natural needs.

Social motives give rise to various activities aimed at taking a certain place in society, gaining recognition and respect from the surrounding people.

Spiritual motives underlie those activities that are associated with self-improvement of a person.

Activity type is usually determined by its dominant motive (dominant because all human activity is polymotivated, i.e. driven by several different motives). (Nemov)

Motivation of activity in the course of its development does not remain unchanged. So, for example, other motives may appear in labor or creative activity over time, and the former fade into the background.

With age, as a person develops, there is a change in the motivation of his activity.. If a person changes as a person, then the motives of his activity are transformed. The progressive development of man is characterized by the movement of motives towards their ever greater spiritualization(from organic to material, from material to social, from social to creative, from creative to moral). (Nemov)

As activity goals its product stands. It can be a real physical object created by a person, certain knowledge, skills and abilities acquired in the course of activity, a creative result (thought, idea, theory, work of art).

The purpose of an activity is not equivalent to its motive, although sometimes the motive and purpose of an activity may coincide with each other. Different activities that have the same goal (end result) may be motivated and supported by different motives. On the contrary, a number of activities with different ultimate goals may be based on the same motives. For example, reading a book for a person can act as a means of satisfying the material (demonstrate knowledge and get a well-paid job for it), social (show off knowledge in the circle of significant people, win their favor), spiritual (expand one's horizons, rise to a higher level of moral development). ) needs.

The subject of activity called what it directly deals with. So, for example, the subject of cognitive activity is any kind of information, the subject of educational activity is knowledge, skills, and the subject of labor activity is the created material product. (Nemov)

Activity- this is the process of a person's active attitude to reality, during which the subject achieves the goals set earlier, the satisfaction of various needs and the development of social experience. Distinctive features of human activity are its social character, purposefulness, plannedness, systematicity.

The psychological characteristics of human activity include: motives, methods and techniques, purpose and result.

motives- these are those internal goals that are associated with the needs of the individual and encourage her to a certain activity. The motive of activity is that which induces it, for the sake of which it is carried out.

The motive and goal form a kind of vector of activity that determines its direction, as well as the amount of effort developed by the subject in its implementation. This vector organizes the entire system of mental processes and states that are formed and unfold in the course of activity.

Goals- the most significant for a person objects, phenomena, tasks and objects, the achievement and possession of which constitute the essence of his activity. The purpose of an activity is an ideal representation of its future result. A distinction should be made between the final goal and intermediate goals. Achieving the ultimate goal is tantamount to satisfying a need. Intermediate goals include goals that a person sets as a condition for achieving the final goal.

Methods and techniques (actions)- relatively complete elements of activity aimed at achieving intermediate goals subordinate to a common motive.

There are three types of activity that genetically replace each other and coexist throughout the life of a person: play, study, work.

A game- a form of human activity in conditional situations, aimed at recreating and assimilating social experience, fixed in socially fixed ways of implementing objective actions.

Doctrine is a type of human activity, the purpose of which is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. The main goal of learning is preparation for future independent labor activity, and the main means is mastering the generalized results of what was created by previous work.

Work- this is an activity aimed at creating a socially useful product that satisfies the material or spiritual needs of people. Directed in accordance with its installation to create a certain result, labor, at the same time, is the main way of personality formation. In the process of labor, not only this or that product of the labor activity of the subject is born, but the subject itself is also formed.