What is equal to k in thermodynamics physics. Basic formulas of thermodynamics and molecular physics that will be useful to you. How does internal energy change?

Dear friends, today I invite you to take a journey into the beautiful and mysterious World of Crystals.

Since childhood, we have all been attracted and attracted to multi-colored pebbles. Intuitively, we felt some kind of mystery in them and could not take our eyes off their natural beauty. We have always wanted to know more about crystals, how they form, grow, what their structure is, their function and what makes them so different from each other. We wanted to know how they affect surrounding nature, on people. What is hidden in them that makes them a real storehouse of knowledge.

We will try to answer these and other questions in this article.

WHAT IS A CRYSTAL?

In school textbooks, crystals are usually called solids that form under natural or laboratory conditions and have the form of polyhedra that resemble the most infallibly strict geometric constructions. The surface of such figures is limited by more or less perfect planes—faces intersecting along straight lines—edges. The intersection points of the edges form the vertices.

A crystal is a solid state of matter. It has a certain shape and a certain number of faces due to the arrangement of its atoms.

Crystals are all solid bodies in which the constituent particles (atoms, ions, molecules) are arranged in a strictly regular manner, like nodes of spatial lattices.

Below is a schematic representation of the crystal lattices of table salt and diamond:


Salt	Diamond

Perhaps you think of a crystal as a rare and beautiful mineral or gemstone. You are partly right. Emeralds and diamonds are crystals. But not all crystals are rare and beautiful. Every single particle of salt or sugar is also a crystal! Many of the most common substances around us are crystals.

There are hundreds of substances in nature that form crystals. Water is one of the most common of these. Freezing water turns into ice crystals or snowflakes.

ABOUT THE FORMATION OF CRYSTALS

Mineral crystals are formed during certain rock-forming processes. Vast amounts of hot and molten rock deep underground are actually mineral solutions. As masses of these liquid or molten rocks are pushed toward the earth's surface, they begin to cool.

They cool very slowly. Minerals turn into crystals when they change from a hot liquid to a cold solid form. For example, rock granite contains crystals of minerals such as quartz, feldspar and mica. Millions of years ago, granite was a molten mass of minerals in a liquid state. Currently, in the earth's crust there are masses of molten rocks that slowly cool and form crystals of various types.

Minerals are part of the earth's crust and make up the internal structure of the planet. They are formed from molten magma located in the deep layers of the Earth, which solidifies when it emerges. Under the influence of various natural conditions, shifts in the earth's crust gradually occur, and its individual layers again sink and melt. Crystals are the products of this geological cyclic process.

Each crystal is made up of millions of individual structural elements, called single crystals, that form a crystal lattice. The unit cell of a crystal lattice is a square, with an atom in each corner. In quartz crystals these are silicon and oxygen atoms.

Natural quartz crystals, mined from the earth, react to compression and deformation. Electric charges appear in them (piezoelectricity).

When a quartz crystal is heated, the stability of its atomic structure is disrupted. The desire of natural forces to restore it leads to a redistribution of electrical charges and the emergence of polarization. This is called piezoelectricity.

Since thought is energy, it means that we can transmit it like electric current. The crystal reacts to these currents as it does to any other energy. They can store in their memory the attitude towards them of the people who removed them from the earth and processed them. We can “clean”, “heal”, “program” stones by projecting our energies into them.

TYPES AND TYPES OF CRYSTALS

The king of all crystals is diamond

Crystals can come in all sorts of shapes. All known crystals in the world can be divided into 32 types, which in turn can be grouped into six types. Crystals can have different sizes.

The set of all crystals can be classified, divided into several types and types, using one or another characteristic classification criterion.

Let's look at a few of them.

First, the crystals should be divided into two large groups: ideal and real.

Ideal crystals is a mathematical abstraction used by scientists to describe the properties of real crystals. The characteristic features of an ideal crystal are smooth faces, strict long-range order, a certain symmetry of the crystal lattice and other parameters characteristic of the crystal.

Real crystals- these are the crystals that we encounter in real life. They have various impurities that can reduce the symmetry of the crystal lattice, rough edges, may have irregular shapes, defects in optical properties (if the crystal is transparent). But there is one property that is inherent in both ideal and real crystals - this is long-range order, the rule according to which atoms are located in the crystal lattice.

Another criterion for dividing crystals into types is their origin. According to this criterion, crystals are divided into natural (natural) and artificial (man-grown).

Natural crystals grow in the depths of our planet in natural growth conditions.

Artificial crystals grown in laboratories or at home. Rostoviki create their own the necessary conditions for growing a particular crystal. For example, copper sulfate crystals can be easily grown at home. Many crystals can be grown both by nature and by people, but there are many examples of crystals that do not “grow” in nature. The only way to get them is to grow them in a laboratory.

Crystals can also be divided according to purely aesthetic and economic criteria into two types - precious and non-precious.

Precious ( crystals ) stones– minerals that have two main characteristics of “preciousness”: beauty and rarity. You know the names of many: diamond, amethyst, ruby, sapphire, emerald, topaz, etc.

	Diamond


	Amethyst


	Ruby


	Sapphire


	Emerald


	Topaz

STRUCTURE AND METAPHYSICAL

PROPERTIES OF CRYSTALS

Crystals with one vertex are 6-sided crystals, their faces converge at one point, forming a pyramidal vertex. Large crystals of this type with wide base, which allows them to stand, are called generators. It is believed that the energy of the Universe is transmitted through them.
Small generator crystals are used to concentrate and transfer energy from one chakra to another.

Generator quartz crystal

Sometimes they have an additional diamond-shaped face located to the left or right of the central face. If it is on the right side, when you look directly at the crystal, it is called “right”, and if it is on the left side, it is called “left”.

"Left" crystal

Most crystals are a combination of both types. The right hemisphere “feels and listens”, and the left hemisphere “thinks and acts”, so if you want to better understand, sense, feel, want to develop your intuition, then the best crystal for you is the “left”. If you need to be more assertive and decisive in your actions, choose the “right” crystal.

Transmitter crystal in the center it has a clearly defined triangular edge. This type of crystal, when held, helps to channel or transmit healing energy.
It does not replace what can be done with your hands, but it greatly enhances it. Such a crystal can be used to treat an absent person. Write the person's name on a piece of paper and place a crystal on top or take it in your hand and focus your thoughts on what that person needs. In fact, there is no need for any other energy than love and light! The crystal will transfer your loving energy to family, friends, and those people who need you.

Perceiving or receptive crystals have a seven-sided flat main face, such a crystal can draw out pain. To achieve this effect, it must be held in the left hand. You can take such a crystal to bed at night and place it next to the sore spot. Healing occurs much faster.
The receptive crystal is especially good for meditation; it makes it easier to relax and get into the right state. It also stimulates our ability to hear ourselves and follow our inner voice. It's good to keep them in your bed; they help you dream and remember them after waking up.

Crystals with two tops symbolize the unity of opposites - Yin and Yang.
The generator crystal and the crystal with two terminations are both a receiver and a transmitter of energy, provide transformation in two directions, and are used to eliminate negative energy. In meditation they serve to balance spirit and matter.
These crystals contain the power of opposites, therefore they help us to know life and death, good and evil, fear and joy. In other words, they encourage us to examine the extremes in ourselves that are not always pleasant, and find a point of balance.

Such crystals are useful when you have problems communicating with other people because they help us hear the “opposition.” If this is what you need, then choose such a crystal, but if you do not know crystals well, then it is better to take a crystal with one completion. In a crystal, the transparent top conducts “male” energy, and the less transparent top conducts “female” energy. The “male” tip glows red, and the “female” tip glows blue.

It is clear that women turn the crystal towards themselves with a transparent top and receive an influx of yang energy, and men turn it opaque and receive yin energy.

Crystal with two points

Lamellar crystals- tablets are crystals in which 2 of the 6 side faces are wider than the others.

They can be with 1 or 2 vertices, as well as part of an intergrowth of several crystals. Such crystals are used in telepathic healing and communication. In practice, they are used to balance the energies of two people or two chakras, or during the period of personality development during the transition to the next level of consciousness.

Lamellar crystals

Rainbow crystals. A rainbow is formed due to an impact and the formation of an internal crack, whose plane refracts the light and decomposes it into 7 component colors.

These crystals are especially joyful and loving. They remind us that the blows we ourselves have endured can bring with them beauty and joy. If you are depressed or upset, carry a crystal with you in your pocket. Soon you will feel better.

They are used to relieve depression and disappointment. If you place such a crystal on Anahata, it will help a person feel joy. Such a crystal is a bridge connecting this and higher worlds, and often gives an incentive to change your life.

Crystals — ghosts . These are crystals with the inclusion of some elements.

At some stage, the crystal stops growing, and other material is deposited on its edges. Then crystal growth begins again around the deposited particles. The "ghost" outline shows where its growth has stopped, it is similar to the ghost outline of another crystal.

Because another natural element is fused with the crystal, it can help reveal to us the wonders of nature. If you want to talk to your indoor plants, use the ghost crystal as an intermediary. Especially if the plant is weakened.

The use of such crystals on garden plot to get a rich harvest.

Citrine is a ghost

Twin crystals- these are two crystals fused with each other.

Self-healing crystal and “left” crystal

They may be the same size, but sometimes one of them is larger than the other. By mutually supporting each other, they maintain both their left and right polarity. They will balance your relationships, not only external (between a man and a woman), but also internal (male and female sides of nature)

Penetrating twins are crystals that grow in such a way that they penetrate each other and often have a common center. They symbolize the unification of ideals, the ability to merge with another without losing one's strength. These crystals are good for two people or those going in a group. Tees, a combination of three crystals, promote communication with other people, with yourself, with your intuition and inner voice.

Crystal tee

Druze- a set of crystals that have the same base. Druze has positive and negative polarity and purifies the air and recharges the atmosphere. Drusen stimulate performance. A druse located in places where there are a lot of people creates harmony and tranquility. It is also extremely beneficial for your garden plot.

Quartz druse

Druse of emerald

Topaz druse

CRYSTALS-KEEPERS OF CHRONICLES OR KEEPERS OF KNOWLEDGE

They have triangles on their faces that indicate the presence of knowledge, but to obtain this knowledge a certain person is required, since this information is intended only for him. They wait for such a person to appear and only then show their true essence.

Crystals — Teachers are precisely “Teachers”. They transmit vibrations that awaken higher power consciousness and direct our attention to the level of the soul. They open up the possibility of contact with areas of the higher “I”. Such a crystal is most often used for meditation, each crystal communicates its essence and function, so a person needs to learn to calm chaotic thoughts and master mental discipline. A person, through such a crystal, comprehends the art of communication between the world of people and minerals.

Heavenly crystals known as structured quartz. These are special quartz brought to our planet to promote universal cleansing, healing and awakening. They carry great strength necessary in overcoming the burden of human emotions, clear the mind of darkness, allow one to recognize the truth and tune in to the realm of the Heavenly. The shape of these crystals is unlike any other type of quartz. The crystal body ends at a natural apex and they do not have any blunted or chipped edges. Unlike regular quartz, sky crystals can have multiple peaks, one, or none at all.

Guardians Earth- are incredibly huge quartz crystals, which are carriers of ancient knowledge of primordial civilizations.

CRYSTALS AND ZODIAC SIGNS

Since ancient times, people have known about the power and properties of natural stones. They were used in talismans, amulets and amulets.

Talismans made from stones selected according to the zodiac sign fill the one who wears them with miraculous powers, help strengthen character traits, new features, bring success, confidence, happiness, good luck in business, wealth and attractiveness, and also protect against unfavorable events.

Amulets and amulets are natural stones with protective properties that can protect the owner from various negative events - the evil eye, diseases, disasters, and at the same time, strengthen the subconscious, increasing the ability to sense signs of impending danger.

Astrologers claim that the influence of stones on a person’s fate and health is determined by the position of the planets and constellations of the zodiac signs. The most useful stones for a person are those that suit the sign under which he was born.

Natural stones and zodiac signs are very connected. This relationship has been tested for centuries. According to it, stones corresponding to the signs of the Zodiac can become a talisman for a person for the rest of his life.

Of course, natural stones not only have a protective effect, but can also heal various diseases. Even just wearing the right ones natural stones helps to accumulate strength and strengthen the immune system.

Aries (21.03-20.04)

Aries stones are all sunny, bright and juicy, and at the same time powerful and strong like spring coming into full force. They enhance his qualities, calm him down and help correct Aries’ shortcomings.

Aries Stones: agate, amazonite, aquamarine, rock crystal, carnelian, serpentine, citrine, coral, quartz, tiger or hawk's eye, jasper.

Taurus (21.04-21.05)

Taurus stones are agates and chalcedony that form deep underground. Taurus is a symbol of stability and revival of nature, the development of emerging life. Since Taurus’ spiritual development potential is already very high, the main task of his talismans is to guide Taurus in a constructive direction.

Taurus Stones: agate, lapis lazuli, amazonite, carnelian, moonstone, turquoise, jasper.

Twins (22.05-21.06)

This sign prefers emerald, gold and warm yellow tones; cold, gloomy stones that will suppress Gemini or even cause harm to them are not suitable for them. If Gemini lacks energy, they can always draw it from natural stones. Since Gemini is a warm summer sign and the season of wearing jewelry is in full swing, they can collect a large, varied collection of jewelry with stones, buy and wear stones according to their desire and mood.

Gemini Stones: amethyst, agate, rock crystal, amazonite, pearl, quartz, coral, amber, garnet, citrine.

Cancer (22.06-22.07)

The element of Cancer is water, therefore its stones are subordinate to the element of water - light, transparent, light blue and emerald green, soft and sunny stones. The sign of Cancer is characterized by softness, but at the same time high mobility, the desire to achieve everything in a simple and short way. Cancer resists the influence of fire and tries to compensate for its excess or deficiency. That is why stones for Cancers are primarily recommended to be light, transparent and calm. But water stones, corals, pearls and mother of pearl are suitable for Cancer.

Cancer Stones: any pearls, jade, amazonite, moonstone, rock crystal, serpentine, lapis lazuli, malachite, amber, jasper.

a lion (23.07-23.08)

The host planet of Leo is the Sun, which means its stones are amazingly sunny golden, bright orange and unusually light. The last greenery of summer and the rich golden colors of the new harvest. But darker and heavier autumn stones are also possible for Leo. However, a lion cannot immediately wear both dark and light stones- he must separate them.

Leo Stones: citrine, amber, agate, coral, rock crystal, malachite.

Virgo (24.08-23.09)

Virgos do not like both dark and overly bright stones - mysterious deep shades and muted tones suit them. This sign is a time of mysterious and dense shades of the setting Sun and the beginning of autumn. Virgo lacks fire, therefore, fiery stones with rich warm shades are suitable for this sign. Virgo’s neatness requires that the stones do not shine, have a muted glow, and that their color is in harmony with clothing, mood and situation - this is the main criterion for selecting and wearing jewelry for Virgo.

Virgo Stones: agate, rhodonite, lapis lazuli, coral, jasper, rock crystal, carnelian, rhodonite, malachite, amber.

Scales (24.09-23.10)

Libra is a very special sign for which there are no obligatory stones, but there are no stones that can do much harm. Libras can wear almost all stones without restrictions; autumn colors suit them best - various shades of purple, dark blue, indigo, green, yellow or orange. The color of their stones is reminiscent of Indian summer and the beginning of autumn. At the same time, these are already winter-dark nights, which is why Libra also has black stones. Libra is balance, the golden mean. The only thing that astrologers do not recommend for Libra is excessive extremes. It is recommended to wear colder stones in winter, while warmer shades are better in summer and autumn.

Libra Stones: amethyst, labradorite, crystal, jasper, citrine.

Scorpion (24.10-22.11)

In Scorpio, different extremes usually coexist. Therefore, both black and scarlet, dark blue or deep lilac stones are suitable for him - richly colored stones. Scorpio does not tolerate light and delicate colors; yellow and golden-green do not suit him. The Scorpio sign has its own potential for managing its energies, although blue, scarlet and black shimmering stones will only help it in this.

Scorpio Stones: agate, coral, hematite, black onyx, pearl, quartz, labradorite, turquoise

Sagittarius (23.11-21.12)

Sagittarius is the next sign of contrasts, and stones for Sagittarius are recommended of different types: on the one hand, these are scarlet, surprisingly fiery stones, and on the other, these are dark and cold stones. Firmness, determination, and rationality. Unity and struggle of opposites. Brightness and contrast are the principles of selecting stones for the Sagittarius collection. It is better to wear according to the principle of the opposite: in difficult and gloomy times, Sagittarius needs to wear red and fiery stones, and in active and hot times - colder or dull stones.

Sagittarius Stones: turquoise, jasper, coral, obsidian, amethyst, lapis lazuli, hematite, rock crystal.

Capricorn (22.12-20.01)

Capricorn is a self-sufficient sign. Capricorns are active, offensive, but also inconsistent. Their host planet is Saturn, so they need fire stones. Many stones that are considered dangerous for some signs (such as serpentine, agate, labradorite and others) will only help Capricorns. Only Capricorn can have the most diverse set of stones and wear stones without paying attention to anything - seasons, months and zodiac signs.

Capricorn Stones: agate, pearls, labradorite, serpentine, hematite, chrysoprase, onyx, rock crystal.

Aquarius (21.01-19.02)

Aquarius symbolizes the element of Air, but in this sign of the Zodiac all the elements seem to be blurred. The sign is ruled by gloomy Uranus, which makes Aquarius not afraid of unusually cold, dark and even a little insidious. There are no stones that can be extremely harmful to Aquarius. Gray skies, ice crystals, stars or shimmering northern lights. But Aquarius cannot refuse stones with soft energy, which they urgently need. However, they should be careful with warm and fiery stones such as coral, carnelian, amber and others.

Aquarius Stones: moonstone, pearl, amethyst, aventurine, rock crystal, agate, jade, obsidian, chrysoprase, malachite, jasper.

Fish (20.02-20.03)

Pisces is a sign of reflection, expectation. The end of Winter, the very beginning of spring. Winter is not giving up yet, but the sun is already beginning to warm up, streams are babbling, primroses are breaking through.

Pisces Stones– this Water is dark, cold and deep. Very blue and blue-green tones predominate. Pisces stones are, without a doubt, green and blue crystals of all possible shades. And also Pisces stones - created in water - pearls and corals.

LEMURIAN CRYSTALS

Most people refer to Lemurian Crystals as “Lemurian Seed Crystals.” This name emphasizes that these crystals carry a very ancient consciousness, storing the original codes of Paradise, which came from the stars to seed the Planet .

Lemurian star seed crystals are said to have originated in the land known as Mu or Lemuria. This civilization is said to have been a peaceful and highly developed spiritual civilization that existed in the region of the South Pacific Ocean, an area currently located at the bottom of the ocean. The Lemurians are believed to have known about a future cataclysmic event, and prepared information-filled crystals to preserve their knowledge and traditions, which are contained in notches (bar codes). IN last days their civilization, the Lemurians decided to plant the seeds of crystals programmed to convey messages of unity. After seeding the crystals on Earth, most of the Lemurians left this planet, traveling to other star systems, possibly as light beings or souls. Others went to the inner lands (Telos), where they continue to care for the Earth and the crystals they programmed are floating out now.

Lemurian crystals or star seeds are the “master” crystals of the Crystal Realm. Within the planetary hologram they are connected to all the crystals. They convey to the rest of the crystals the message of Unity, Union and Love, which was the key energy of Lemuria. Their task is to reactivate the ancient memory of Unity and Unity in the planetary matrix so that it becomes a way of life on the New Earth.

LEMURIAN CRYSTALS

ATLANTIC LEMURIAN MASTER CRYSTALS

Our unique time is characterized by the impending Transition from the third and fourth dimensions to the fifth. The determining factor for this is the increase in the frequency of vibrations of the collective consciousness of humanity. It entails a change in the vibrations of the Earth, since we are very closely connected with it.

To increase the vibrations of the Earth and universal human consciousness, Lemurian master crystals were delivered to the planet from the Sirius star system. Together with the Atlantean master crystals, which were created on Earth during the golden age of Atlantis by the Sirius-Pleiades alliance, they are called upon to play a primary role in the Ascension of the planet and humanity.

If the Atlantean master crystals were directly related to the activation by planetary crystal grid-144, then the Lemurian master crystals play a direct role in the activation by planetary crystal grid-999.

Activation of planetary grids entails activation of planetary and universal consciousness with subsequent planetary ascension.

We all know that the crystal grid-144 was fully operational on 12:12:12. But the 144 crystal lattice is not final. As we move into higher dimensions, and therefore increasing the frequency of vibrations, it will be transformed into a more complex structure - the Planetary Crystalline Grid 999.

The “Ascension in the East and West” project and the activation of Lemurian crystals associated with it is a necessary stage in the creation of a new planetary crystalline grid 999 as a form of crystalline consciousness of people and the planet.

CRYSTAL SCULL MAX

The owner calls him "Max". He is a skull made from a single piece of rock crystal, found about 100 years ago in a Mayan tomb in Guatemala.

The date of its creation is almost impossible to determine. Various experts give figures from 5,000 to 36,000 years ago. According to one legend, he is one of the 13 crystal skulls that exist in this world (this legend is told more accessible in the film “Indiana Jones and the Mystery of the Crystal Skull”). That someday all 13 skulls will be connected and we will receive an inexhaustible source of ancient wisdom and knowledge.

The owner of the artifact, Joan Park, is currently traveling around the United States with her skull and giving various interviews and giving lectures on TV.

“Many people think that these things are from other planets and can transmit coded messages to us. Some believe that they are from Ancient Atlantis. I think so myself. I think he is part of a now lost culture and a forgotten civilization.

Films were made about the “Max” skull on the Discovery Channel, the BBC, and it was placed for research in the British Museum, which called it authentic. Many people who were near “Max” experienced strange visions.

“The first time I sat next to him, I went into a trance state,” says Miss Park, “I don’t remember what happened after that. He is not part of any religion, he has nothing to do with it. He is here to help everyone know themselves."

How did it happen that a simple housewife from Houston became the owner of a valuable artifact?

According to Park, she and her husband were introduced to a Tibetan healer named Norbu Chin in 1973. At the time, their 12-year-old daughter was dying of bone cancer, and they sought treatment in all areas. It was not possible to save the daughter, but the Parks became closely involved with Tibetan medicine and worked in a medical foundation with Chin. It was from him that they learned about the skull. According to the healer, it was found in 1924 in a Mayan tomb in Guatemala. In 1970, a shaman from Mexico allegedly gave it as a gift to Chin.

“Chin communicated with many famous people“,” says Park, “astronauts, actors, professors and scientists.”

In 1977, Chin died and before his death he gave the skull to the Parks with the words “Take it and someday you will understand why you need it.” Joan Park put the skull in her closet and forgot about it for ten years.

In June 1987, she was watching TV, and they were showing a program about crystal skulls. Something made the woman find out more about this, and she went to the Houston Museum to look at these artifacts. There she learned about the skulls that are kept in museums in England and France. She showed them her skull, she was told that very little is known about such things, the workers wanted to put it on display, but Joan did not agree. She brought the skull back home and wanted to put it back in the closet, saying “what a skull,” but then it was as if she heard a voice in her head. The voice replied, “I’m not the Skull, my name is Max.”

“I remember that I immediately said “Holly-Molly” and jumped up,” says Joan. “But he calmed me down, saying that he would not harm me. That he is only a tool, a teacher, and that he will also serve humanity for various purposes.”

Since then, Joan and “Max” have flown around many countries, including France, Great Britain and Holland. "Max" participated in many ceremonies and rituals associated with planetary light work. Her skull was the inspiration for the Indiana Jones movie.

ABOUT CRYSTAL SKULLS

"Paradigm of Perfection"

Archangel Metatron
via James Tiberonne (channeled excerpts)

Man is a spirit passing through human experience. It is important for all people to realize that you are not just visitors-observers of the planet on which you live, you are co-creators of the planetary reality in which you exist.

And in this planetary environment, humanity is equally a part of the existing sphere of the earth, often not higher, not lower, but a unique part of it. This awareness is an important key to understanding the mechanics of upcoming leaps in consciousness and development.

And this is the logical reason that the crystalline aspects of your earth mineral kingdom, which are equally conscious, are energy lifting devices (crystals, crystal skulls) that raise the earth and human frequency environment.

But that's not all. The human body is moving from a carbon base to a silicon base, thus becoming more crystalline physically. This is why so many of you are now more than ever attracted to gems and crystals and the crystalline regions of the planet... and the Crystal Skulls. Because they are transcoding to the library & paradigm of the Crystal Pattern.

The Crystal Turtles hold vast libraries of information pertaining to the intense changes taking place on Earth that are truly important to humanity.

Crystal Skulls contain vibrational codes and are the paradigm of the "Ascension Paradigm" and the "Enhanced Human Prototype".

From a linear Earth perspective, the Crystal Skull is a skull human form made from various types of crystalline material, usually quartz. However, we will tell you that the authentic skull has an extraterrestrial conglomerate of what can be called "higher quartz", having in its composition pure quartz fused with the diamond aspect and fused in the alchemical sense with frequency gold. This is a material similar to that used on the Crystal Moon of Atlantis and the magnificent Temple Crystals, similar but not exactly the same. In fact, the original skulls predate the Atlantean Temple Crystals in linear terms.

Only two of the Crystal Skulls in current circulation are currently of extraterrestrial origin. These authentic crystal skulls came from another world and another reality.

Originally modeled crystal skulls were brought to Earth by the Arcturians and Pleiadians, and it was brought to the earth that became Lemuria, but in fact the model was brought before the planet was fully in polarity. It was brought to the planet during the Firmament, to the zero point of the Earth, let us say, the non-magnetic plane, to the Earth World which knew perfection, which was inhabited by the androgynous manifestation of the Etheric Spirit in full consciousness. However, it was already known that the Firmament would fall, disappear, and the plan then was that this model, this extraordinary holographic archive, the original crystalline skull, would serve as the prototype for this initial holistic aspect. And so it contains within itself a model of the 12 layers of DNA, the fully conscious pure mind and being of an evolved human being.

The crystal skulls contain within them what you were before the human experiment and what you will be when you complete its endless cycle.

Skull Max is truly one of the true Crystal Paradigms. It is of Pleiadian and Arcturian construction and origin. MAX is a vast consciousness, like a supercomputer, with a significant library of data contained within it. He is the most powerful, most conscious of all the remaining "Ancient Crystal Skulls". He is one of two skulls that are truly extraterrestrial in origin. The other is called "Sha Na Ra". Both come from the moon of a huge planet orbiting Arcturus (about 20 times larger than your largest planet, Jupiter).

MAX

SHA NA RA

MITCHELL HEDGES

There is a legend about the existence of 13 skulls, but only one holds the full energy of 12 and that is Max. Therefore, 12 skulls were manifested to represent each of the 12 individual aspects of the One, and thus the 12 surrounding the one (Max) at the center became, over time, a ceremonial and symbolic ritual. Each of the 12 represented an aspect and expression of each of the 12 dimensions of the earth plane and each of the 12 levels of each dimension, each layer of DNA, each component of the 144 that is extremely important to the Earth experience, the Earth Plane.

Question to Metatron: It has been said that the original 13 skulls must be brought together for the Ascension to occur. Can you talk about this?

Archangel Metatron: My dears, they are together. They etherically form a circle under Tibet. You don't have to worry that they have to be physically picked up, folded and put together to unlock the door of Ascension.

The knowledge inherent in genuine Crystal Turtles is the knowledge of the Universal Mind. It is vast and enriching. Access to this information stimulates an understanding of who you are. Placing your consciousness within the crystal skull is actually a way of working with them, opening portals and doors to a world beyond your greatest expectations. However, entering the skull is not like having a spoken dialogue, but more like being downloaded, you might say, suddenly and clearly receiving information that changes your paradigm, expands your understanding. Some receive information as visual images, others as information packs, downloads if you wish, and sometimes both. The information is already in the subconscious, in the deeper part of the subconscious, which you call the super subconscious. It exists in the realm of light that you call ultraviolet.

HOW TO WORK WITH CRYSTAL SKULLS?

The journey into the skulls recalibrates, resets your mental awareness and more thoroughly aligns you with your perfection, your inner Divine Self.

That's why The best way working with the crystal skull is about going into it. Visualize yourself entering the skull as if you were entering a crystal cave. Make yourself so tiny and petite that you become completely deep and hidden inside her. Make yourself insignificant within its immensity and enter the world of wonder, the world of treasure. Open yourself to it and explore what it presents, for you are truly, so to speak, in the true cave of creation. Each time you enter, he can present you with another world, another dimension, another paradigm and parallel to crystalline thought.

So we tell you that humans in the consciousness of duality have become an amnesiac species. You have forgotten who you really are. You have forgotten that you are powerful spirits having a human experience. The search for humanity en masse and individually is to rediscover your enlightened authenticity, and this authenticity is represented in the crystalline skull.

Enlightenment is for you to discover within, and the crystal skull is the tool for this recalibration. Indeed, it is already in you, in your being, your subconscious, your DNA. Spiritual enlightenment is not about following any Guru, any channel, but rather about finding it through personal intuition, through your inner guidance. It is in accepting and knowing that the Divine Self is a spark of God within you and that you are an intricate and eternal part of the Creator God.

There are tools to help you along the way, always have been and always will be. You are not alone. But, dear ones, you have a mission to support this very special era of Ascension. Perfection is being played out on Earth now.

Truly, the Crystal Skulls are a reflection of the perfection in man. They are ancient computers, programmed assistants that have the answers neatly installed within them to many of your worries, perplexities and questions... no matter when they were carved out. They are a paradigm, a hologram, and they are available to everyone.

When humanity individually and en masse is ready to use these Divine Libraries to unite into perfection, they will offer a glimpse into incredible new worlds of beauty, creativity and unconditional love. They have been dormant for millennia, waiting for this moment in your linear time to reboot and awaken. Those of you who have worked with Crystal Skulls in past incarnations are being called now to work with them again. Can you hear this call? You are one of the Guardians of the Crystal Mystery! It's time for the Dreamer to awaken!

I Am Metatron and I have shared these Truths with you. You are loved.

And so it is.

CRYSTALS(from the Greek krystallos - crystal; originally - ice), solids with three-dimensional periodicity. atomic (or molecular) structure and, under certain conditions of formation, having natural. the shape of regular symmetrical polyhedra

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

The variety of crystals in shape is very large. Crystals can have

four to several hundred edges.

A crystal is a regular three-dimensional lattice composed of atoms or molecules. The structure of a crystal is the spatial arrangement of its atoms (or molecules).

The three-dimensional crystal structure is a lattice built on three coordinate axes x, y, z. The unit cell of a crystal is a parallelepiped built on translation vectors a, b, c. Such a cell is called primitive. As a result of the repetition of an elementary cell in space, a spatial simple lattice is obtained - the so-called Bravais lattice.( Auguste Bravais- French physicist one of the founders of crystallography. He laid the foundation for the geometric theory of crystal structure: he discovered (1848) the main types of spatial lattices. There are fourteen types of Bravais lattices. These lattices differ from each other in the type of unit cells.

FORMATION OF CRYSTALS

Crystals are formed in three ways: from melt, from solution and from vapor. Crystallization from a melt also includes the process of formation of volcanic rocks. Magma penetrates cracks in the earth's crust and as the magma or lava cools, atoms and ions of different elements are attracted to each other, forming crystals of various minerals. As they increase in size, they prevent each other from growing, and therefore smooth outer edges are rarely formed. Crystals grow from solutions at temperatures below the melting point, therefore, crystals grown by such methods do not have defects characteristic of crystals grown from a melt. Crystallization from solutions can be carried out by changing the temperature of the solution, by changing the composition of the solution, and also by using crystallization during a chemical reaction. The method of growing crystals from vapor is widely used for growing both massive crystals and thin (polycrystalline or amorphous) coatings, whiskers and plate-like crystals. The specific growing method is chosen depending on the material.

Types of crystals

It is necessary to separate the ideal and real crystal.

Perfect Crystal

It is, in fact, a mathematical object that has complete symmetry, even smooth edges.

Real crystal

Always contains various defects in the internal structure of the lattice, distortions and irregularities on the edges and deformations.

APPLICATION OF CRYSTALS Natural crystals have always aroused people's curiosity. Their color, shine and shape touched the human sense of beauty, and people decorated themselves and their homes with them. Since ancient times, amulets and amulets have been made from crystals. Jewelry made from crystals is as popular now as it was during the Neolithic. Based on the laws of optics, scientists were looking for a transparent, colorless and defect-free mineral from which lenses could be made by grinding and polishing. Uncolored quartz crystals have the necessary optical and mechanical properties, and the first lenses, including those for glasses, were made from them. Even after the advent of artificial optical glass, the need for crystals did not completely disappear; Crystals of quartz, calcite and other transparent substances that transmit ultraviolet and infrared radiation are still used to make prisms and lenses for optical devices. Crystals played an important role in many technical innovations of the 20th century. Some crystals generate an electrical charge when deformed. Their first significant use was in the manufacture of generatorsradio frequencies with quartz crystal stabilization. By forcing a quartz plate to vibrate in the electric field of a radio frequency oscillatory circuit, it is possible to stabilize the receiving or transmitting frequency. Semiconductor devices are made from crystalline substances, mainly silicon and germanium. Crystals are also used in some lasers to amplify microwave waves and in lasers to amplify light waves Crystals are used in radio receivers and transmitters, in pickup heads and in sonar. Some crystals modulate light beams, while others generate light under the influence of an applied voltage. The list of uses for crystals is already quite long and is constantly growing. Artificial crystals. For a long time, man has dreamed of synthesizing stones that are as precious as those found in nature. Until the 20th century such attempts were unsuccessful. But in 1902 it was possible to obtain rubies and sapphires that have the properties of natural stones. Later, in the late 1940s, emeralds were synthesized, and in 1955, General Electric and the Physical Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences reported the production of artificial diamonds. Many technological needs for crystals have stimulated research into methods for growing crystals with predetermined chemical, physical, and electrical properties. The researchers’ efforts were not in vain, and methods were found to grow large crystals of hundreds of substances, many of which have no natural analogue. In the laboratory, crystals are grown under carefully controlled conditions to ensure the desired properties, but in principle, laboratory crystals are formed in the same way as in nature - from a solution, melt or vapor.

Crystals are solids with a certain chemical composition, which have a correct, symmetrical and regular arrangement in the crystal lattice of their constituent atoms, molecules, and ions. Many crystalline structures are substances that are common to us, such as sugar and salt. Translated from Greek. krystallos means "transparent ice". Indeed, snowflakes are rightfully considered unusual and amazing crystals.

Crystal structures in nature are “born” from a variety of substances. The most common of them is water, which, when exposed to low temperatures, changes from liquid to solid, turning into ice or snowflakes. Every winter, especially during severe frosts, complex symmetrical objects in the shape of stars and 6-sided plates cover the surface of the earth with a layer of soft and fluffy snow. They consist of thin ice crystals collected together.

The famous German astronomer Johannes Kepler wrote a work back in the 17th century that he dedicated to hexagonal snowflakes, thereby having a significant influence on the development of crystallography - the science of the appearance, structure and properties of crystalline structures. Two centuries later, the outstanding photographer W. Bentley gave the world the opportunity to admire these beautiful creations of nature. He managed to take photographs of thousands of snowflakes, where none is the same as the other. To do this, the photographer caught snowflakes on black velvet and took amazing pictures.

Flowers of the world of stones

As a result of rock formation processes occurring in the unexplored interior of the earth, minerals with a crystalline structure are formed from molten rocks that are pushed to the surface and begin to cool. I just can’t believe that the incredible beauty and regularity of the external cut of these crystalline minerals was created by nature itself. At first glance, it seems that someone specially sawed out the flat edges and then polished them to perfection.

Crystal structures from mineral solutions can be infinitely varied. Most are complex regular polyhedra - a cube, a parallelepiped, a pyramid, which at all times amazed people with the perfection of their geometric shapes and immaculately smooth surface. They are also found in the form of columns, plates, stars, sharp needles, created by radiant balls - spherulites.

The sizes vary from very small to huge columns, and the thickness can be less than a sheet of paper or, on the contrary, reach several hundred centimeters. Crystals can be either colorless or sparkle, sparkle, play different colors. Many of them are perfectly transparent, like crystal clean water, although there are brown and almost black specimens.

Rhinestone

It is a clear variety of crystalline quartz (naturally occurring silica) found in the voids of hydrothermal veins. In the eternal snows of the Alps, many centuries ago, colorless pebbles were found, visually very similar to ordinary ice, the shine of which was riveting and mesmerizing. Even ancient scientists concluded that with prolonged exposure to low temperatures, water freezes to such a state that it loses the ability to melt, becoming petrified forever.

When the mineral appeared in Europe, it immediately received the name “bohemian diamond.” It was used to carve jewelry, dishes, incendiary lenses and glasses for glasses, and also decorated luxurious royal palaces and castles of the upper class. The mineral has prism-like facets, often with horizontal shading. Transparent crystals of rock crystal can intricately grow together into druses or represent “brushes”, and also fill geodes. On the territory of Russia, large deposits, the so-called “crystal cellars”, were discovered in the Urals, Yakutia, Transbaikalia and Primorye. Large perfect rock crystal without defects is quite rare and therefore has a high value.

The St. Petersburg Museum, founded in 1773 at the Mining Institute, has collected more than 230 thousand samples, including a unique collection of treasures extracted from the bowels of the earth. Rock crystal is stored here, the height of which is almost 1 m and the weight of more than 1 thousand kg.

King of Crystals

Diamond, as one of the rarest but most widespread natural minerals, gets its name due to its exceptional hardness. The mineral is a crystalline modification of pure carbon. In a crystal lattice in the form of a face-centered cube, the atoms are located very tightly and are connected by the strongest covalent bonds. There is no exact scientific data on the exact origin of diamond, and the age of most diamonds is more than 3 billion years.

Despite the fact that in its rough form a diamond is quite imperfect and inconspicuous, since ancient times it has been used as a exquisite decoration, especially transparent types. Almost 500 years ago, jewelry masters learned to cut crystal and, as a result of a labor-intensive process, turn it into a precious stone - a diamond, which has become synonymous with wealth and luxury. Red diamonds are considered the rarest, but the likelihood of finding them in natural conditions is minimal.

Today, due to the fact that most natural diamonds are not suitable for cutting, they are widely used in many industries. The largest deposits are located in Africa and Russia, and the first diamonds were discovered in our country back in the 19th century in the Urals and Siberia.

The world's largest diamond, the Cullinan Diamond, was found 100 years ago in South Africa, weighed more than 3,000 carats. Masterly jewelers made 105 diamonds from it, weighing more than 1,000 carats in total.

Precious crystals

Continuing the theme of amazing precious crystals, one cannot help but note the beautiful and quite rare varieties of the mineral corundum (Al oxide) - ruby and sapphire. Corundum has always been distinguished by its high hardness, which is second only to diamonds. Stones were imported to European countries from Asia. Deposits of corundum are often found in igneous rocks. They are also found in nests, veins, inclusions, and precious varieties are found in placers. The properties of the jewelry mineral are transparent, distinguished by its brilliance, rich color scheme And wide range shades.

The museum in St. Petersburg houses a collection of corundum in more than 40 different color shades.

The most valuable are red - ruby and blue - sapphire. Beautiful shades are provided by impurities: in ruby there is chromium, and in sapphire there are inclusions of iron and titanium. After giving the minerals a worthy jewelry treatment, they look as chic as diamonds.

There is an assumption that rubies were mined in Burma back in the Bronze Age. In the XIX century. the king of Burma sold two precious stones for fabulous money at that time and secured full-fledged royal rule. Rubies have always been considered an elite jewel and an accessory for wealthy members of the aristocracy. Today, high quality rubies come from Myanmar, Thailand, and Sri Lanka. In Russia, deposits are known in the Urals and Karelia.

In 1800, the relationship between ruby and sapphire was discovered in Europe, which from ancient times adorned the symbols of royal power of the ruling dynasties of Asia and Europe. The beautiful mineral was mined by the ancient inhabitants South-East Asia. The largest sapphire, weighing more than 3 thousand carats, was found in the USA in the middle of the last century. The mineral deposit is found on almost all continents.

The magical stone world is surprised by many amazing facts about crystals.

Natural crystals in the form of majestic columns were used in ancient civilizations to support heavy temple gates or as pedestals.

The mineral spodumene, almost 13 m long and weighing 90 tons, is known for its unusual giant crystals. At the same time, well-formed minerals are considered valuable collection materials.
Some of the largest selenite crystals were found in 2000 in a unique cave, about a million years old, in the Nike mine complex (Mexico). The largest has dimensions: length – 4 m, width – 4 m and weight – 55 tons.
Crystals “grow” not only in the natural environment, but are also grown in special laboratories, and some even at home. Humanity has learned to produce artificially many precious stones that are not inferior in beauty to natural ones, but are valued several times lower. Moreover, today there are many species known that do not exist in nature.
Crystals are “messengers” of the stellar world. Quite often, crystalline structures of extraterrestrial origin are found in meteorites that fell to Earth.
In Austria, to mark the 100th anniversary of the Swarovski company, the Crystal Worlds Museum was opened. Here you can see the largest (40 cm in diameter) and smallest Swarovski crystal (0.8 mm), which are listed in the Guinness Book of Records.
The Moscow Mineralogical Museum houses more than 4,800 crystal samples from 7 crystal systems.

From time immemorial, the beneficial effects of crystals on human destiny and health have been noted, and magical and healing properties have also been attributed to them. Moreover, each zodiac sign has its own talisman stone, which should improve the energy in the house, as well as help the owner in difficult times. life situations, bring benefits, protect and cure diseases. What is the enormous power of minerals from a scientific point of view is still difficult to explain, but the fact that lithotherapy, as one of the types of alternative medicine, is becoming very popular today remains a fact.

Solids are divided into amorphous bodies and crystals. The difference between the latter and the former is that the atoms of the crystals are arranged according to a certain law, thereby forming a three-dimensional periodic arrangement, which is called a crystal lattice.

It is noteworthy that the name of crystals comes from the Greek words “to freeze” and “cold”, and in the time of Homer this word was used to describe rock crystal, which was then considered “ frozen ice" At first, this term was used to describe only faceted transparent formations. But later, opaque and uncut bodies of natural origin also began to be called crystals.

Crystal structure and lattice

An ideal crystal is represented in the form of periodically repeating identical structures - the so-called elementary cells of a crystal. In general, the shape of such a cell is an oblique parallelepiped.

It is necessary to distinguish between concepts such as crystal lattice and crystal structure. The first is a mathematical abstraction depicting the regular arrangement of certain points in space. While a crystal structure is a real physical object, a crystal, in which a certain group of atoms or molecules is associated with each point of the crystal lattice.

Crystal structure of garnet - rhombus and dodecahedron

The main factor determining the electromagnetic and mechanical properties of a crystal is the structure of the unit cell and the atoms (molecules) associated with it.

Anisotropy of crystals

The main property of crystals that distinguishes them from amorphous bodies is anisotropy. This means that the properties of the crystal are different depending on the direction. For example, inelastic (irreversible) deformation occurs only along certain planes of the crystal, and in a certain direction. Due to anisotropy, crystals react differently to deformation depending on its direction.

However, there are crystals that do not have anisotropy.

Types of crystals

Crystals are divided into single crystals and polycrystals. Monocrystals are substances whose crystalline structure extends throughout the body. Such bodies are homogeneous and have a continuous crystal lattice. Typically, such a crystal has a pronounced cut. Examples of natural single crystals are single crystals of rock salt, diamond and topaz, and quartz.

Many substances have a crystalline structure, although they usually do not have the characteristic shape of crystals. Such substances include, for example, metals. Research shows that such substances consist of a large number of very small single crystals - crystal grains or crystallites. A substance consisting of many such differently oriented single crystals is called polycrystalline. Polycrystals often have no faceting, and their properties depend on the average size of crystal grains, their relative position, as well as the structure of the grain boundaries. Polycrystals include substances such as metals and alloys, ceramics and minerals, as well as others.

The content of the article

CRYSTALS– substances in which the smallest particles (atoms, ions or molecules) are “packed” in a certain order. As a result, as crystals grow, flat edges spontaneously appear on their surface, and the crystals themselves take on a variety of geometric shapes. Anyone who visited the museum of mineralogy or an exhibition of minerals could not help but admire the grace and beauty of the forms that “non-living” substances take.

And who hasn’t admired snowflakes, the variety of which is truly endless! Back in the 17th century. the famous astronomer Johannes Kepler wrote a treatise About hexagonal snowflakes, and three centuries later, albums were published in which collections of enlarged photographs of thousands of snowflakes were presented, and none of them repeated the other.

The origin of the word “crystal” is interesting (it sounds almost the same in all European languages). Many centuries ago, among the eternal snows in the Alps, on the territory of modern Switzerland, very beautiful, completely colorless crystals were found, very reminiscent of pure ice. Ancient naturalists called them that - “crystallos”, in Greek - ice; This word comes from the Greek “krios” - cold, frost. It was believed that ice, being in the mountains for a long time in severe frost, petrifies and loses the ability to melt. One of the most authoritative ancient philosophers, Aristotle, wrote that “crystallos is born from water when it completely loses heat.” The Roman poet Claudian described the same thing in verse in 390:

In the bitter alpine winter, the ice turns to stone.

The sun cannot then melt such a stone.

A similar conclusion was made in ancient times in China and Japan - ice and rock crystal were designated there by the same word. And even in the 19th century. poets often combined these images together:

Barely transparent ice, dimming over the lake,

The crystal covered the motionless jets.

A.S. Pushkin. To Ovid

A special place among crystals is occupied by precious stones, which have attracted human attention since ancient times. People have learned to obtain many precious stones artificially. For example, bearings for watches and other precision instruments have long been made from artificial rubies. Beautiful crystals are also obtained artificially, which do not exist in nature at all. For example, cubic zirconia - their name comes from the abbreviation FIAN - Physical Institute of the Academy of Sciences, where they were first obtained. Cubic zirconias are crystals of cubic zirconium oxide ZrO 2, which are very similar in appearance to diamonds.

Structure of crystals.

Depending on their structure, crystals are divided into ionic, covalent, molecular and metallic. Ionic crystals are built from alternating cations and anions, which are held in a certain order by forces of electrostatic attraction and repulsion. Electrostatic forces are non-directional: each ion can hold around itself as many ions of the opposite sign as it fits. But at the same time, the forces of attraction and repulsion must be balanced and the overall electrical neutrality of the crystal must be maintained. All this, taking into account the size of the ions, leads to different crystal structures. Thus, during the interaction of Na + ions (their radius is 0.1 nm) and Cl – (their radius is 0.18 nm), octahedral coordination occurs: each ion holds six ions of the opposite sign near itself, located at the vertices of the octahedron. In this case, all cations and anions form the simplest cubic crystal lattice, in which the vertices of the cube are alternately occupied by Na + and Cl – ions. Crystals of KCl, BaO, CaO, and a number of other substances are structured similarly.

Cs + ions (radius 0.165 nm) are close in size to Cl – ions, and cubic coordination occurs: each ion is surrounded by eight ions of the opposite sign located at the vertices of the cube. In this case, a body-centered crystal lattice is formed: in the center of each cube formed by eight cations, one anion is located, and vice versa. (It is interesting that at 445°C CsCl transforms into a simple cubic lattice like NaCl.) The crystal lattices of CaF 2 (fluorite) and many other ionic compounds are more complex. In some ionic crystals, complex polyatomic anions can be connected in chains, layers, or form a three-dimensional framework, in the cavities of which cations are located. This is how silicates are structured, for example. Ionic crystals form most salts of inorganic and organic acids, oxides, hydroxides, and salts. In ionic crystals, the bonds between ions are strong, therefore such crystals have high temperatures melting (801° C for NaCl, 2627° C for CaO).

In covalent crystals (they are also called atomic crystals), at the nodes of the crystal lattice there are atoms, identical or different, that are connected by covalent bonds. These connections are strong and directed at certain angles. A typical example is diamond; in its crystal, each carbon atom is connected to four other atoms located at the vertices of the tetrahedron. Covalent crystals form boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, ZnS, SiO 2, ReO 3, TiO 2, CuNCS. Since there is no sharp boundary between polar covalent and ionic bonds, the same is true for ionic and covalent crystals. Thus, the charge on the aluminum atom in Al 2 O 3 is not +3, but only +0.4, which indicates a large contribution from the covalent structure. At the same time, in cobalt aluminate CoAl 2 O 4 the charge on aluminum atoms increases to +2.8, which means the predominance of ionic forces. Covalent crystals are generally hard and refractory.

Molecular crystals are built from isolated molecules between which relatively weak forces of attraction act. As a result, such crystals have much lower melting and boiling points, and their hardness is low. Thus, crystals of noble gases (they are built from isolated atoms) melt at very low temperatures. From not organic compounds molecular crystals are formed by many nonmetals (noble gases, hydrogen, nitrogen, white phosphorus, oxygen, sulfur, halogens), compounds whose molecules are formed only by covalent bonds (H 2 O, HCl, NH 3, CO 2, etc.). This type of crystal is also characteristic of almost all organic compounds. The strength of molecular crystals depends on the size and complexity of the molecules. Thus, helium crystals (atomic radius 0.12 nm) melt at –271.4°C (under a pressure of 30 atm), and xenon crystals (radius 0.22 nm) - at –111.8°C; fluorine crystals melt at –219.6° C, and iodine – at +113.6° C; methane CH 4 – at –182.5° C, and triacontane C 30 H 62 – at +65.8° C.

Metal crystals form pure metals and their alloys. Such crystals can be seen on broken metals, as well as on the surface of galvanized sheet. The crystal lattice of metals is formed by cations that are bound by mobile electrons (“electron gas”). This structure determines the electrical conductivity, malleability, and high reflectivity (brilliance) of crystals. The structure of metal crystals is formed as a result of different packing of sphere atoms. Alkali metals, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, etc. form a body-centered cubic lattice; copper, silver, gold, aluminum, nickel, etc. - a face-centered cubic lattice (in addition to the 8 atoms at the vertices of the cube, there are 6 more located in the center of the faces); beryllium, magnesium, calcium, zinc, etc. - the so-called hexagonal dense lattice (in it 12 atoms are located at the vertices of a rectangular hexagonal prism, 2 atoms at the center of the two bases of the prism and 3 more atoms at the vertices of a triangle in the center of the prism).

All crystalline compounds can be divided into mono- and polycrystalline. A single crystal is a monolith with a single undisturbed crystal lattice. Natural single crystals of large sizes are very rare. Most crystalline solids are polycrystalline, that is, they consist of many small crystals, sometimes visible only under high magnification.

Crystal growth.

Many prominent scientists who made a great contribution to the development of chemistry, mineralogy, and other sciences began their first experiments with growing crystals. In addition to purely external effects, these experiments make us think about how crystals are structured and how they are formed, why different substances give crystals of different shapes, and some do not form crystals at all, what needs to be done to make the crystals large and beautiful.

Here is a simple model that explains the essence of crystallization. Let's imagine that parquet is being laid in a large hall. It is easiest to work with square-shaped tiles - no matter how you turn such a tile, it will still fit into its place, and the work will go quickly. This is why compounds consisting of atoms (metals, noble gases) or small symmetrical molecules easily crystallize. Such compounds, as a rule, do not form non-crystalline (amorphous) substances.

It is more difficult to lay parquet from rectangular planks, especially if they have grooves and protrusions on the sides - then each plank can be laid in its place in one single way. It is especially difficult to lay out a parquet pattern from planks of complex shapes.

If the parquet floorer is in a hurry, the tiles will arrive at the installation site too quickly. It is clear that now the correct pattern will not work: if the tile is skewed in at least one place, then everything will go crooked and voids will appear (as in the old computer game Tetris, in which the “glass” fills with parts too quickly). Nothing good will come of it if a dozen craftsmen start laying parquet in a large hall at once - each from his own place. Even if they work slowly, it is extremely doubtful that the adjacent areas will be well connected, and in general, the appearance of the room will be very unsightly: in different places the tiles are located in different directions, and there are gaping holes between individual sections of even parquet.

Approximately the same processes occur during the growth of crystals, only the difficulty here is that the particles must fit not in a plane, but in a volume. But there is no “parquet floorer” here - who puts the particles of matter in their place? It turns out that they lay themselves down because they continuously perform thermal movements and “look” for the most suitable place for themselves, where they will be most “comfortable”. In this case, “convenience” also implies the most energetically favorable location. Once at such a place on the surface of a growing crystal, a particle of matter can remain there and after some time end up inside the crystal, under new growing layers of matter. But something else is also possible - the particle will again leave the surface into the solution and again begin to “search” for where it is more convenient for it to settle.

Each crystalline substance has a certain external crystal shape characteristic of it. For example, for sodium chloride this shape is a cube, for potassium alum it is an octahedron. And even if at first such a crystal had an irregular shape, it will still sooner or later turn into a cube or octahedron. Moreover, if a crystal with the correct shape is deliberately damaged, for example, its vertices are knocked off, edges and faces are damaged, then with further growth such a crystal will begin to “heal” its damage on its own. This happens because the “correct” edges of the crystal grow faster, and the “incorrect” ones grow more slowly. To verify this, the following experiment was carried out: a ball was carved out of a table salt crystal, and then placed in a saturated NaCl solution; After some time, the ball itself gradually turned into a cube! Rice. 6 Crystal forms of some minerals

If the crystallization process does not proceed too quickly, and the particles have a shape convenient for placement and high mobility, they easily find their place. If the mobility of particles with low symmetry is sharply reduced, they “freeze” at random, forming a transparent mass similar to glass. This state of matter is called glassy. An example is ordinary window glass. If glass is kept very hot for a long time, when the particles in it are sufficiently mobile, silicate crystals will begin to grow in it. Such glass loses its transparency. Not only silicates can be glassy. Thus, when ethyl alcohol is slowly cooled, it crystallizes at a temperature of –113.3° C, forming a white snow-like mass. But if the cooling is carried out very quickly (dip a thin ampoule of alcohol into liquid nitrogen at a temperature of –196 ° C), the alcohol will solidify so quickly that its molecules will not have time to build the correct crystal. The result is transparent glass. The same thing happens with silicate glass (for example, window glass). With very rapid cooling (millions of degrees per second), even metals can be obtained in a non-crystalline glassy state.

Substances with “inconvenient” molecular shapes are difficult to crystallize. Such substances include, for example, proteins and other biopolymers. But ordinary glycerin, which has a melting point of +18° C, easily becomes supercooled when cooled, gradually solidifying into a glassy mass. The fact is that glycerin is already very viscous at room temperature, and when cooled it becomes completely thick. At the same time, it is very difficult for asymmetrical glycerol molecules to line up in a strict order and form a crystal lattice.

Methods for growing crystals.

Crystallization can be carried out different ways. One of them is cooling a saturated hot solution. At each temperature, no more than a certain amount of substance can dissolve in a given amount of solvent (for example, water). For example, 200 g of potassium alum can dissolve in 100 g of water at 90° C. This solution is called saturated. We will now cool the solution. As the temperature decreases, the solubility of most substances decreases. Thus, at 80° C, no more than 130 g of alum can be dissolved in 100 g of water. Where will the remaining 70 g go? If cooling is carried out quickly, the excess substance will simply precipitate. If this sediment is dried and examined with a strong magnifying glass, you can see many small crystals.

When the solution is cooled, particles of the substance (molecules, ions), which can no longer be in a dissolved state, stick together, forming tiny crystal nuclei. The formation of nuclei is facilitated by impurities in the solution, for example dust, the smallest irregularities on the walls of the vessel (chemists sometimes rub a glass rod on the inner walls of the glass on purpose to help crystallize the substance). If the solution is cooled slowly, few nuclei are formed, and, gradually growing on all sides, they turn into beautiful crystals of regular shape. With rapid cooling, many nuclei are formed, and particles from the solution will “fall” onto the surface of the growing crystals, like peas from a torn bag; Of course, this will not produce the right crystals, because the particles in the solution may simply not have time to “settle” on the surface of the crystal in their proper place. In addition, many rapidly growing crystals interfere with each other, like several parquet floor workers working in one room. Foreign solid impurities in a solution can also act as crystallization centers, so the purer the solution, the greater the chance that there will be few crystallization centers.

By cooling a solution of alum saturated at 90°C to room temperature, we obtain 190 g of alum in the precipitate, because at 20°C only 10 g of alum dissolves in 100 g of water. Will this result in one large crystal of regular shape weighing 190 g? Unfortunately, no: even in a very pure solution, it is unlikely that a single crystal will begin to grow: a mass of crystals can form on the surface of the cooling solution, where the temperature is slightly lower than in the bulk, as well as on the walls and bottom of the vessel.

The method of growing crystals by gradually cooling a saturated solution is not applicable to substances whose solubility depends little on temperature. Such substances include, for example, sodium and aluminum chlorides, calcium acetate.

Another method for obtaining crystals is to gradually remove water from a saturated solution. The “excess” substance crystallizes. And in this case, the slower the water evaporates, the better the crystals are obtained.

The third method is to grow crystals from molten substances by slowly cooling the liquid. When using all methods best results are obtained if a seed is used - a small crystal of the correct shape, which is placed in a solution or melt. In this way, for example, ruby crystals are obtained. Growing Crystals precious stones carried out very slowly, sometimes for years. If you accelerate crystallization, then instead of one crystal you will get a mass of small ones.

Crystals can also grow when vapor condenses, creating snowflakes and patterns on cold glass. When metals are displaced from solutions of their salts with the help of more active metals, crystals also form. For example, if an iron nail is dipped into a solution of copper sulfate, it will become covered with a red layer of copper. But the resulting copper crystals are so small that they can only be seen under a microscope. Copper is released on the surface of the nail very quickly, which is why its crystals are too small. But if the process is slowed down, the crystals will turn out to be large. To do this, cover the copper sulfate with a thick layer of table salt, put a circle of filter paper on it, and on top - an iron plate with a slightly smaller diameter. All that remains is to pour a saturated solution of table salt into the vessel. Copper sulfate will begin to slowly dissolve in brine (the solubility in it is less than in pure water). Copper ions (in the form of complex green CuCl 4 2– anions) will diffuse upward very slowly over many days; the process can be observed by the movement of the colored border.

Having reached the iron plate, copper ions are reduced to neutral atoms. But since this process occurs very slowly, the copper atoms line up into beautiful shiny crystals of metallic copper. Sometimes these crystals form branches - dendrites. By changing the experimental conditions (temperature, size of vitriol crystals, thickness of the salt layer, etc.), you can change the conditions for crystallization of copper.

Supercooled solutions.

Sometimes a saturated solution does not crystallize when cooled. Such a solution, which contains in a certain amount of solvent more solute than is “supposed” at a given temperature, is called a supersaturated solution. A supersaturated solution cannot be obtained even by very long mixing of crystals with a solvent; it can only be formed by cooling a hot saturated solution. Therefore, such solutions are also called supercooled. In them, something interferes with the onset of crystallization, for example, the solution is too viscous or large nuclei are required for crystal growth, which are not present in the solution.

Solutions of sodium thiosulfate Na 2 S 2 O 3 are easily supercooled. 5H 2 O. If you carefully heat the crystals of this substance to about 56 ° C, they will “melt”. In reality, this is not melting, but the dissolution of sodium thiosulfate in its “own” water of crystallization. With increasing temperature, the solubility of sodium thiosulfate, like most other substances, increases, and at 56 ° C its water of crystallization is sufficient to dissolve all the available salt. If you now carefully cool the vessel, avoiding sudden shocks, crystals will not form and the substance will remain liquid. But if a ready-made embryo—a small crystal of the same substance—is introduced into a supercooled solution, rapid crystallization will begin. It is interesting that it is caused by the crystal of only this substance, and the solution can be completely indifferent to the foreign substance. Therefore, if you touch a small crystal of thiosulfate to the surface of the solution, a real miracle will happen: a crystallization front will run from the crystal, which will quickly reach the bottom of the vessel. So after just a few seconds the liquid will completely “solidify”. You can even turn the vessel over - not a single drop will spill out of it! The solid thiosulfate can be melted again in hot water and repeated all over again.

If a test tube containing a supercooled thiosulfate solution is placed in ice water, the crystals will grow more slowly and will be larger. Crystallization of a supersaturated solution is accompanied by its heating - this releases thermal energy obtained by the crystalline hydrate during its melting.

Sodium thiosulfate is not the only substance that forms a supercooled solution in which rapid crystallization can be caused. For example, sodium acetate CH 3 COONa has a similar property (it can be easily obtained by the action of acetic acid on soda). With sodium acetate, experienced lecturers demonstrate this “miracle”: onto a small pile of acetate in a saucer they slowly pour a supersaturated solution of this salt, which, upon contact with the crystals, immediately crystallizes, forming a column of solid salt!

Crystals are widely used in science and technology: semiconductors, prisms and lenses for optical devices, solid-state lasers, piezoelectrics, ferroelectrics, optical and electro-optical crystals, ferromagnets and ferrites, single crystals of high-purity metals...

X-ray structural studies of crystals made it possible to establish the structure of many molecules, including biologically active ones - proteins, nucleic acids.

Faceted crystals of precious stones, including those grown artificially, are used as jewelry.

Ilya Leenson