Classification of sensations is made on several grounds.

1. Based on the presence or absence of direct contact of the receptor with the stimulus that causes sensation, distant and contact reception are distinguished.

2. Based on the location of receptors on the surface of the body, in muscles and tendons or inside the body, exteroception (visual, auditory, tactile, etc.), proprioception (sensations from muscles, tendons) and interoception (sensations of hunger, thirst) are distinguished, respectively.

3. According to the time of occurrence during the evolution of the animal world, ancient and new sensitivity are distinguished.

Visual sensations. The visual apparatus is the eye, a sensory organ with a complex anatomical structure. Light waves reflected by an object are refracted as they pass through the lens of the eye and focused on the retina as an image. The eye is a distant receptor, since vision provides knowledge about objects and phenomena located at some distance from the sense organs.

Auditory sensations. Distant sensations also include auditory sensations. The sensory endings of the auditory nerve are located in the inner ear, the outer ear collects sound vibrations, and the middle ear mechanism transmits them to the cochlea. The excitation of the sensory endings of the cochlea is based on the principle of resonance: the endings of the auditory nerve, different in length and thickness, begin to move (resonate) at a certain number of vibrations per second.

Olfactory sensations are classified as distant. The irritants that cause olfactory sensations are microscopic particles of substances that enter the nasal cavity with air, dissolve in the nasal fluid and act on the receptor.

Taste sensations– contact, they arise when a sensory organ comes into contact with the object itself. The organ of taste is the tongue. There are four main qualities of taste stimuli: sour, sweet, bitter, salty. From the combination of these four sensations, to which are added the muscular ones (movement of the tongue), a range of taste sensations arises.

A feature of the dynamics of taste sensations is their close connection with the body’s need for food. When fasting, taste sensitivity increases, when satiated, it decreases.

Skin sensations. The skin has several independent analyzer systems: tactile, temperature, pain. All types of skin sensitivity are classified as contact sensitivity. Tactile sensitivity is unevenly distributed throughout the body. The largest concentration of tactile receptors is in the palm of your hand, on your fingertips and on your lips.

38. The concept of perception. Sensations and perceptions.

Perception- this is a holistic reflection of objects, situations, phenomena that arise from the direct impact of physical stimuli on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs.

The main difference between perception and sensation is the objectivity of awareness of everything that affects us, i.e., a display of an object in the real world in the totality of all its properties or, in other words, a holistic display of an object.

Every sensation we have has quality, strength and duration.

The quality of a sensation is its inner essence, the way in which one sensation differs from another. For example, the qualities of visual sensations are colors - blue, red, brown, etc., auditory - the sounds of a person’s voice, musical tones, the sound of falling water, etc.

The strength (intensity) of sensations is determined by one or another degree of expression of a given quality. On a foggy morning, the outlines of the forest and the contours of buildings are perceived by the organ of vision only in general outline, unclear. As the fog disappears, it becomes possible to distinguish a coniferous forest from a deciduous one, a three-story house from a four-story one. The strength of visual stimulation, and therefore the sensation, continues to increase. Now you can see individual trees, their branches, window frames in the windows of the house, flowers on the windowsill, curtains, etc.

The duration of a sensation is the time during which a person retains the impression of a particular sensation. The duration of the sensation is fundamentally different from the duration of the irritation. Thus, the action of the stimulus may already be completed, but the sensation continues for some time. For example, a feeling of pain after a jerky blow, a burning sensation after an instant touch with a hot object.

The sensation has a certain spatial localization.

Every sensation is always colored in a certain, most often specific tone, i.e. has a corresponding emotional connotation. Depending on their quality, strength and duration, sensations can cause positive or negative emotions. The light scent of lilac promotes the appearance nice feeling, the same smell, concentrated and existing for a long time, can lead to dizziness, nausea, and general poor health. Matte light light bulb calms, intermittent light irritates (for example, when riding a bicycle next to a loose fence that blocks the brightly shining sun).

The emergence of appropriate emotions during certain sensations is an individual process. One person likes to listen to loud music, another does not, one person likes the smell of gasoline, another is irritated by it. The emotional coloring of sensations is also individual.

In addition to the emotional one, a slightly different coloring may also occur during the sensation (though in very rare cases). For example, the famous Russian composers A.N. Scriabin and N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov combined natural hearing with a sense of simultaneous coloring of perceived sounds in completely certain colors spectrum

This phenomenon, called synesthesia, was described by French authors and called it “color hearing.” It can be observed not only when perceiving musical tones, but also when listening to any sounds, for example, while reading poetry. Physiological basis This phenomenon is an unusual irradiation of the excitation process with greater or lesser capture of the central part of another analyzer. This is based on the natural qualities of a particular human analyzer. Subsequently, these qualities develop as a result of constant training and sometimes reach a significant degree of expression.

As a result of immediate or prolonged action of the stimulus, the sensitivity of the analyzer may increase or decrease, leading to adaptation of sensations or aggravation (sensitization) of them. Subthreshold stimuli do not cause awareness of sensations.

In a newborn child, all analyzer systems are morphologically ready for reflection. However, they must go a long way in their functional development.

The child's first organ of cognition is the mouth, so taste sensations arise earlier than others. At 3-4 weeks of a child’s life, auditory and visual concentration appears, which indicates her readiness for visual and auditory sensations. In the third month of life, she begins to develop eye motor skills. Coordination of eye movements is associated with fixation of an object acting on the analyzer.

Even before entering school, the child’s visual analyzer quickly develops. Especially the development of sensitivity to the colors of the spectrum, visual acuity, general sensitivity to light stimuli.

The development of auditory sensations is of great importance. Already in the third month, the child localizes sounds, turns his head to the sound source, and responds to music and singing. The development of auditory sensations is closely related to language acquisition. Sensitivity to speech sounds appears early. So, in the third month, a child can already distinguish between the affectionate and angry tone of speech addressed to her, and in the sixth month of life, she can distinguish the voices of people close to her.

THEM. Sechenov emphasized great value kinesthetic sensations in development cognitive activity. The perfection of the child’s motor sphere, the subtlety and division of its movements necessary to perform various types activities.

N.N. Koltsova put forward the idea of ​​unity and interconnection of all manifestations of the motor analyzer, ranging from simple motor components to language kinesthesia. During the period of speech formation, restriction of movements leads to the cessation of babbling and the utterance of the first syllables. The rhythm of speech corresponds to the rhythm of bodily movements that the child performs. Reasoning by N.N. Koltsova coincide with those experimental data that show the connection between rhythm, tempo and loudness of speech and temperament.

Organic sensations in interaction with kinesthesia and distant sensations form another vital complex of sensitivity.

The basis here is organic sensations and a sense of the body diagram (the correspondence of its parts). The feeling of health and strength gives a person vigor, self-confidence, and stimulates activity.

So, sensations arise and develop during a person’s life and constitute its sensory organization.

B. Ananyev writes that in children there are no significant differences in the level of sensitivity of the same analyzers, although this is obvious in an adult. Steelworkers, artists, and textile workers have increased sensitivity. Thus, textile workers distinguish 30-40 shades of black fabric, while a layman’s eye can distinguish only 2-3 shades. Therapists are very good at distinguishing noises. Consequently, activity influences the development of types of sensitivity that are significant for a particular profession. It has been experimentally confirmed that it is possible to increase sensitivity to recognition in humans tenfold.

The formation of a socially significant personality can proceed on an extremely limited sensory basis, even with the loss of two leading sensitivities - vision and hearing. Under these conditions, tactile, vibration, and olfactory sensitivity become leading in personality development. The example of the deaf-blind mute A. Skorokhodova, an outstanding scientist and psychologist, convincingly demonstrates the heights of creative activity that a person can achieve, relying in his development on “non-conductive” sensations.

Test questions and assignments

1. Define the term sensations.

2. What is the place of sensations in the knowledge of the world around us?

3. Name the types of sensations and characterize them.

5. Classify the sensation according to three parameters.

6. Reveal the essence of each pattern of sensations.

Literature

1. Ananyev B. Theory of sensations. - L.: Leningrad State University, 1961.

2. Kravkov SV. Essay on the general psychophysiology of the sense organs. - M.; L., 1946.

3. Leontyev A.N. The problem of the emergence of sensation // 3rd ed. Problems of mental development. - M.: MSU, 1972.

4. Mili J., Mili M. Feelings of animals and humans: Trans. from English -M., 1966.

5. Skorokhodova OM. How I perceive, imagine and understand the world around us. - M.: Pedagogy, 1990.

In a newborn child, all analyzer systems are morphologically ready for imaging. However, they must go through a significant amount of functional development.

The child’s most organ of cognition is the mouth, so taste sensations arise earlier than others. At 3-4 weeks of a child’s life, auditory and visual concentration appears, which indicates her readiness for visual and auditory sensations. In the third month of life, she begins to master eye motor skills. Coordination of eye movements is associated with fixation of an object that acts on the analyzer.

The child's visual analyzer quickly develops. Especially sensitivity to colors, visual acuity, general sensitivity to light stimuli.

The development of auditory sensations is of great importance. Already in the third month, the child localizes sounds, turns his head to the source of the sound, and responds to music and singing. The development of auditory sensations is closely related to language acquisition. In the third month, the child can already distinguish between the affectionate and angry tone of a tongue extending towards her, and in the sixth month of life she can distinguish the voices of people close to her.

I.M. Sechenov emphasized the great importance of kinesthetic sensations in the development of cognitive activity. The perfection of the child’s motor sphere, the differentiation of its movements necessary to perform various types of activities, largely depend on them.

M. M. Koltsova put forward the idea of ​​unity and interconnection of all manifestations of the motor analyzer, ranging from simple motor components to language kinesthesia. During the period of language formation, restriction of movements leads to the cessation of babbling and the pronunciation of the first syllables. The rhythm of speech corresponds to the rhythm of bodily movements that the child makes. The reasoning of M. M. Koltsova coincides with the experimental data that show the connection between rhythm, tempo and loudness of speech and temperament.

Organic sensations, in interaction with kinesthesia and distant sensations, form another vital complex of sensitivity. The basis here is made up of organic feelings and sensations of the body diagram (the correspondence of its parts). The feeling of health and strength gives a person vigor, self-confidence, and stimulates active activity.

Consequently, sensations arise and develop throughout a person’s life and constitute its sensory organization.

B. G. Ananyev writes that in children there are no significant differences in the level of sensitivity of the same analyzers, although in an adult they are obvious. Increased sensitivity is noted among steelworkers, artists, and textile workers. Thus, textile workers distinguish 30-40 shades of black fabric, while non-specialists distinguish only 2-3 shades. Therapists are very good at distinguishing noises. Consequently, activity influences the development of types of sensitivity that are significant for a given profession. It has been experimentally confirmed that it is possible to increase the sensitivity to human recognition tenfold.

The formation of a socially significant personality can take place on an extremely limited sensory basis, even with the loss of two leading senses - vision and hearing. Then tactile, vibration, and olfactory sensitivity becomes leading in the development of personality. The example of the deaf-blind A. Skorokhodov, an outstanding psychologist, convincingly shows what heights of creative activity a person can achieve, relying in his development on “non-wired” sensations.

6. In psychopathology, the following disturbances of sensations are distinguished, which include:

1. Hyperesthesia is a disturbance of sensitivity, which is expressed in a super-strong perception of light, sound, and smell. Characteristic of conditions after previous somatic diseases, traumatic brain injury. Patients may perceive the rustling of leaves in the wind as like rattling iron, and natural light as very bright.

2. Hyposthesia - decreased sensitivity to sensory stimuli. The surroundings are perceived as faded, dull, indistinguishable. This phenomenon is typical of depressive disorders.

3. Anesthesia - loss, most often of tactile sensitivity, or functional loss of the ability to perceive taste, smell, individual objects, typical of dissociative (hysterical) disorders.

4. Paresthesia - a feeling of tingling, burning, crawling. Usually in zones corresponding to the Zakharyin-Ged zones. Typical for somatoform mental disorders and somatic diseases. Paresthesias are caused by the peculiarities of blood supply and innervation, which makes them different from senestopathies. Heaviness under the right hypochondrium has long been familiar to me, and occurs after fatty foods, but sometimes it spreads to pressure above the right collarbone and into the right shoulder joint.

5. Senestopathies - complex unusual sensations in the body with experiences of displacement, transfusion, overflow. Often fanciful and expressed in unusual metaphorical language, for example, patients talk about the movement of a tickle inside the brain, the transfusion of fluid from the throat to the genitals, and the stretching and compression of the esophagus. I feel, says patient S., that... it’s as if the veins and vessels are empty, and air is being pumped through them, which must definitely get into the heart and it will stop. Something like swelling under the skin. And then the bursts of bubbles and the boiling of blood.

6. Phantom syndrome is observed in persons with limb loss. The patient represses the absence of a limb and seems to feel pain or movement in the missing limb. Often such experiences occur after awakening and are supplemented by dreams in which the patient sees himself with a missing limb.

7. STUDY METHODS

Experimental

Methods for studying sensations are associated with experiments, mainly physiological or psychophysiological.

Painful sensations have one peculiarity, which can be noticed by easily pricking your finger. At first, a relatively weak, but precisely localized pain sensation occurs. After 1-2 seconds it becomes more intense. G. Head was first able to separate this “double sensation” in 1903. His sensory nerve was cut for experimental purposes. It was already known then that nerves can recover. Immediately after the transection, all types of sensitivity disappeared in the experimental area, which were restored at unequal rates. After 8-10 weeks, the first signs of recovery appeared; after 5 months, pain sensitivity was restored, but in a very peculiar way. A slight prick, even the touch of an assistant, caused an excruciating, almost unbearable feeling of pain. The subject screamed, shook his whole body, grabbed the one who was causing the irritation. Moreover, if he was blindfolded, he could not tell where the sensation of pain arose. And only five years later the pain sensations were completely restored. This is how the doctrine of protopathic and epicritic sensitivity arose. Protopathic sensitivity (from the Greek protos - first and pathos - suffering)

represents the most ancient primitive undifferentiated sensitivity low level, and epicpitic (from the Greek epikriticos - making a decision) is a highly sensitive and finely differentiated type of sensitivity that arose at later stages of phylogenesis.

Diagnostic

Diagnostic methods for studying sensations are mainly associated with measuring sensitivity thresholds and require the presence of special equipment.

In psychology, there are several concepts of sensitivity threshold

The lower absolute threshold of sensitivity is determined as least strength stimulus that can cause sensation.

Human receptors are very sensitive to an adequate stimulus. For example, the lower visual threshold is only 2-4 quanta of light, and the olfactory threshold is equal to 6 molecules of an odorous substance.

Stimuli with a strength less than the threshold do not cause sensations. They are called subliminal and are not conscious, but they can penetrate the subconscious, determining a person’s behavior, as well as forming the basis of his dreams, intuition, and unconscious desires. Research by psychologists shows that the human subconscious can react to very weak or very short stimuli that are not perceived by consciousness.

The upper absolute threshold of sensitivity changes the very nature of sensations (most often to pain). For example, with a gradual increase in water temperature, a person begins to perceive not heat, but pain. The same thing happens with strong sound or pressure on the skin.

The relative threshold (discrimination threshold) is the minimum change in the intensity of the stimulus that causes changes in sensations. According to the Bouguer-Weber law, the relative threshold of sensations is constant when measured as a percentage of the initial value of stimulation.

In a newborn child, all analyzer systems are morphologically ready for imaging. However, they must go through a significant amount of functional development.

The child’s most organ of cognition is the mouth, so taste sensations arise earlier than others. At 3-4 weeks of a child’s life, auditory and visual concentration appears, which indicates her readiness for visual and auditory sensations. In the third month of life, she begins to master eye motor skills. Coordination of eye movements is associated with fixation of an object that acts on the analyzer.

The child's visual analyzer quickly develops. Especially sensitivity to colors, visual acuity, general sensitivity to light stimuli.

The development of auditory sensations is of great importance. Already in the third month, the child localizes sounds, turns his head to the source of the sound, and responds to music and singing. The development of auditory sensations is closely related to language acquisition. In the third month, the child can already distinguish between the affectionate and angry tone of a tongue extending towards her, and in the sixth month of life she can distinguish the voices of people close to her.

I.M. Sechenov emphasized the great importance of kinesthetic sensations in the development of cognitive activity. The perfection of the child’s motor sphere, the differentiation of its movements necessary to perform various types of activities, largely depend on them.

M. M. Koltsova put forward the idea of ​​unity and interconnection of all manifestations of the motor analyzer, ranging from simple motor components to language kinesthesia. During the period of language formation, restriction of movements leads to the cessation of babbling and the pronunciation of the first syllables. The rhythm of speech corresponds to the rhythm of bodily movements that the child makes. The reasoning of M. M. Koltsova coincides with the experimental data that show the connection between the rhythm, tempo and volume of speech and temperament.

Organic sensations, in interaction with kinesthesia and distant sensations, form another vital complex of sensitivity. The basis here is made up of organic feelings and sensations of the body diagram (the correspondence of its parts). The feeling of health and strength gives a person vigor, self-confidence, and stimulates active activity.

Consequently, sensations arise and develop throughout a person’s life and constitute its sensory organization.

B. G. Ananyev writes that in children there are no significant differences in the level of sensitivity of the same analyzers, although in an adult they are obvious. Increased sensitivity is noted among steelworkers, artists, and textile workers. Thus, textile workers distinguish 30-40 shades of black fabric, while non-specialists distinguish only 2-3 shades. Therapists are very good at distinguishing noises. Consequently, activity influences the development of types of sensitivity that are significant for a given profession. It has been experimentally confirmed that it is possible to increase the sensitivity to human recognition tenfold.

The formation of a socially significant personality can take place on an extremely limited sensory basis, even with the loss of two leading senses - vision and hearing. Then tactile, vibration, and olfactory sensitivity becomes leading in the development of personality. The example of the deaf-blind A. Skorokhodov, an outstanding psychologist, convincingly shows what heights of creative activity a person can achieve, relying in his development on “non-wired” sensations.