Objective of the lesson:
- understand the causes, goals, and results of the religious wars in France
Understand the reasons for strengthening absolute monarchy
Tasks:
Educational
To bring students to an understanding of the causes, goals and results of the religious wars in France;
Find out how absolutism strengthened in France;
Developmental
Continue developing the ability to work with documents;
Continue developing the ability to work with maps;
Continue to develop the ability to summarize and analyze the material studied;
Continue developing communication skills;
Educational
Foster a sense of tolerance;
To form a feeling of rejection of war as a means of resolving religious conflicts;
Foster a humane attitude towards people.
Lesson equipment :
Textbook “History of Modern Times 1500-1800.7 class”, authors: A.Ya. Yudovskaya, P.A. Baranov, L.M. Vanyushkina;
Map "Reformation in Europe inXVI V.";
Memo for assessing the activities of the ruler;
I. Klula “Catherine of Medici” (Rostov-on-Don, 1997).
Lesson type: combined lesson
Lesson form : frontal, lesson-study
Teaching methods: verbal, visual.
Lesson plan:
The beginning of religious wars.
"Bartholomew's Night"
The War of the Three Henrys.
Good King HenryIV Navarrese
Richelieu's reign.
PROGRESS OF THE LESSON
Organizational moment
Who is on duty? Who's missing?
Motivation for educational activities
The bell has already rung -
Let's start our lesson.
We open all the notebooks,
The books have the necessary bookmarks.
We answer questions,
When necessary, we shut up.
We will understand the topic,
The main thing is not to get distracted!
Updating knowledge
A) Thermology: Reformation, Protestants, Lutheran Church, Calvinist Church, Anglican Church, Puritans.
B) Dates: 1517 – M. Luther publishes 95 theses against indulgences (Germany)
1524-1526 –Peasant War in Germany
1555 - Religious Peace of Augsburg on the equality of Catholics and Protestants. (Germany, KarlV)
1534 - the law that declared the king the head of the church in England
1588 - the struggle between England and Spain. Defeat of the Invincible Armada
B) Names in history:
-Martin Luther (Protestant, Germany)
- Thomas Munzer (Protestant, leader peasant war in Germany)
PhilipII, (Catholic, Spanish king, led the fight against the Reformation)
John Calvin, (Protestant, Switzerland)
Ignatius of Loyola (Spain, Catholic, founder of the Jesuit Order)
HenryVIII. (supporter of the Reformation in England)
G) Name fundamental difference Reformation in England from the Reformation in Germany (in A. “from above”, in G. “from below”)
D) Working with the map
show on the map the territories dominated by the Catholic Church; territories in which Protestant churches established themselves.
Goal setting, problem statement
There is one more leading country left unaffected by our study. Today in class I invite you on a journey through this country. I associate it with Versailles, the Louvre, Eiffel Tower. What kind of country is this? Of course, this is France. Write down the topic of the lesson
What do you think are our lesson goals today? (Understand the reasons, goals, and results of the religious wars in France. Understand the mechanism for strengthening the absolute monarchy)
And in order to achieve the goal, you and I must understand the followingproblem – What are the features of the Reformation in France?
Finding ways to solve the problem. Learning new material
Spread of the Reformation in France
At the end XVcentury, when the unification of France was completed, it became the largest state in Europe in terms of population. The country had a population of 15 million. At the beginning XVIcentury, Calvinism began to spread in France. And who in France sympathized with Protestantism?
Spread of Calvinist doctrine in France
Segments of the population supporting CalvinismReasons for support
Representatives of the ancient nobility
Dissatisfaction with the strengthening of royal power and loss of political influence
Part of the nobility
The nobility, especially the impoverished ones, wanted to take over the wealth of the church
Some of the townspeople, especially in Southern France, and the first bourgeois entrepreneurs
They wanted to return the ancient city liberties. Entrepreneurs were attracted by the Calvinist ethic, the desire to accumulate money, to live a modest life, and to have a cheap church
As a result, by the end of the first quarterXVIcentury, France found itself split into two hostile camps - Catholics and Protestants. The Catholics were supported by the French kings from the Valois dynasty. The north of France remained on the side catholic church, A Southern France became Protestant.
Protestants in France were called Huguenots (“comrades” who took a common oath). This is how the Reformation entered France.
The concept is written down in the notebook.
Huguenots - These are French Calvinists.
HuguenotsCatholics
Territories
South
North
Compound
Ancient nobility, nobles, townspeople
King, peasantry
Supporting States
England, Germany
Spain
Position
Brutally persecuted
Supported by the king and the bulk of the population
Leaders
Henry of Navarre, Admiral of Coligny
Francois de Guise, Heinrich de Guise
Beginning of religious wars
At this time there was no strong royal power in France. Representatives of the Valois dynasty succeeded each other on the throne, but there was not among them a person with a statesmanlike mind. Among the relatives of the kings, the all-powerful Duke of Guise stood out, who was called the “uncrowned king of Paris.” It is with the name of this man that the beginning of the religious wars in France is associated. In March 1562, Guise, traveling with his retinue through the town of Vassy, carried out a bloody massacre of peaceful Huguenots. The incident in Vassi became the reason for the start of the religious wars, which lasted more than thirty years (1562-1598).
The date of religious wars is recorded in the notebook.
1562-1598 - religious wars in France.
Now let us turn our attention to the legal status of Catholics and Huguenots. The Huguenots had no rights. Since the 20sXVIcenturies they were subjected to severe persecution. The king himself was on the side of the Catholics.
From 1560 to 1574, France was ruled by a king from the Valois dynasty, CharlesIX., the problems facing the country did not interest him. During his childhood, the country was ruled by Queen Mother Catherine de Medici.
To develop students’ ability to evaluate political decisions
yates from the position of their contemporaries, the characterization of a statesman given by the French thinker and humanist of the 16th century was included in the content of the story. Michel Montaigne. The student is reading...
Catherine de Medici had the qualities that Montaigne wrote about. She also sought to preserve the unity of a nation split into hostile factions. The Queen was the embodiment of the strengths and weaknesses of her contemporaries. She, like all people of the 16th century, did not attach much importance human life. Therefore, the Queen Mother’s methods did not really confuse her contemporaries. State interests forced Catherine de Medici to sometimes resort to murder, but in cases where she had no other choice.
Religious wars pushed the country down the path of disaster. Catholics created their own brotherhoods, organized numerous processions and killed the Huguenots. The Huguenots were not so cruel; in captured cities they plundered churches, but did not kill anyone
Physical education lesson “Bogatyrs”
So we threw up our hands
As if they were surprised
And to each other to the ground
They bowed at the waist.
Below, children, don’t be lazy,
Bow, smile.
We'll put our palms to our eyes,
Let's spread our strong legs.
Turning to the right
Let's look around majestically.
And you need to go left too
Look from under your palms.
And to the right. And also, over the left shoulder.
"Bartholomew's Night"
Have you ever come across the expression “St. Bartholomew’s Night” in everyday life? What does it mean? (any sudden mass destruction (murder) of opponents, unless, of course, it happens in an open, fair battle).Now we will find out what events this “catchphrase” is associated with. What was the situation in Paris on the eve of St. Bartholomew's Night? Was it only religious hostility that spilled out in this bloody event, or was it added to by the general bitterness of the townspeople? The leaders of the Huguenots were Admiral Coligny and King Henry of Bourbon of Navarre. Charles IX, in order to reconcile Catholics and Huguenots, decided to marry his sister Margaret to Henry. The wedding was scheduled for August1572 g . On this occasion, all the Huguenot leaders with their retinues gathered in Paris. Catholic leaders did not want to allow the Huguenots to gain influence. They decided to take advantage of the fact that all the Protestant leaders had gathered in Paris and destroy them. First, an attempt was made on the life of one of the Huguenot leaders, Admiral Coligny. He was wounded by a shot from around the corner, but survived.
On the night before the feast of St. Bartholomew (August 24), gangs of murderers formed by the Parisian merchant foreman organized a massacre of the Huguenots. The houses where the Huguenots were located were secretly marked with crosses. In the Abbey of Saint-Germain, the bell rang - it was a call for violence. The night of St. Bartholomew has begun. Crowds of “good Catholics,” directed by Duke Henry of Guise, broke into the houses of the Huguenots. Many were caught in their beds, the poor people did not suspect anything. Houses were robbed and Huguenots were killed. Neither women nor babies were spared. Admiral Coligny was killed and his corpse was dragged through the streets and then hanged on the gallows. And King Charles IX himself, standing at the palace window, shot at the unfortunate people from an arquebus. The massacre continued for three days. There was no salvation anywhere. The carnage then spread to the provinces. Contemporaries believed that up to 30 thousand people were killed in total/Students write down the date of “Bartholomew’s Night” in a notebook/
1572 - "Bartholomew's Night" in France.
War of the Three Henrys
After the death of Charles IX, the French crown passed to Henry III, who was unable to rule the country. The Catholics were led by Henry of Guise, and the Protestants by Henry of Navarre. A struggle for the throne developed between them. Henry of Guise developed a plan to kidnap Henry III and tonsure him as a monk. Upon learning of this, Henry III ordered the death of Henry of Guise. But the Catholics could not forgive him for this, and in the summer of 1589 an attempt was made on Henry III’s life, and before his death he bequeathed the throne to Henry of Navarre, but at the same time said that Paris would not accept the Huguenot. Henry Navarre also understood that the country would not accept a Protestant king.
“Paris is worth a mass,” said Henry of Navarre, who became the French king Henry IV; he converted to the Catholic faith for the second time.
Mass - Catholic worship.
? Do you think Henry of Navarre did the right thing by converting to the Catholic faith? Why?
Henry IV 1598 year published Edict of Nantes - a document regulating the political and religious rights of the Huguenots; religious tolerance was proclaimed in the camp.
Work is being organized with the document “Edict of Nantes” Textbook, p. 132-133
"Good King" Henry IV Navarrese
Henry IV was the first king of the Modern Age who placed the task of creating a strong united state above issues of religion. Its main task is to unite the people into a single state organism. And the strengthening of royal power as the guarantor of this unity.
?Why do you think he was nicknamed "The Good King"?
Henry of Navarre went down in history as a “good” king because:
1) under him, France ended the war with Spain;
2) direct tax on peasants was reduced;
3) a ban was introduced on arresting peasants for debts and taking away their livestock;
4) patronized the development of trade and manufacturing;
5) contributed to the creation of merchant companies;
6) the life of the people has improved;
7) overcoming the devastation caused by the religious war.
He could still do a lot, but in 1610 he died from the treacherous dagger of a Catholic fanatic.
Richelieu's board
After Henry's deathIVHis young son Louis became kingXIII, in whose name his mother Maria de' Medici ruled. Her policies led to the emptying of the treasury. In such a situation, Cardinal Richelieu (or Richelieu) became the king's first minister. He continued Henry's policiesIV. He created a regime of absolute monarchy, which lasted for about a century and a half
VI . Primary consolidation.
Who are the Huguenots?
- When did the religious wars begin in France?
-When did the religious wars end in France?
-What document was signed in 1598?
Summing up the lesson, grading.
The Reformation and religious wars in France had their own characteristics: the nobility and townspeople took the greatest part in them. The country managed to get out of this period of disasters, having achieved the introduction of religious tolerance and the creation of an absolute monarchy. The result of these processes is that France has become the strongest state in Europe.
Homework
1) paragraph 14, questions at the end of the paragraph.
2) In the notebook “Assessment of the activities of the ruler” HeinrichIV, Cardinal Richelieu
Reflection.
Appendix 1
French thinker and humanist of the 16th century. Michel Montaigne about Catherine de Medici
“Virtue in politics is a virtue with numerous bends, angles and turns... It is motley and artificial, not straight and clear, not constant, not entirely innocent. He who walks in a crowd must be able to lean aside, press his elbows , retreat or go forward, even be able to turn away from the path of the righteous, depending on what he encounters: he must be guided not by his own desires, but by the desires of his neighbor, not by his own proposals, but by what is offered to him, depending on the era, from people, from deeds."
Appendix 2
This is the name given to the civil wars in France between Catholics, who made up the majority of the population, and a Protestant minority who professed Calvinism and called themselves Huguenots.
Already in 1559 in France there were many followers of the Protestant Church among all classes of the population. The royal power tried to restore Catholicism throughout the country, but in the first war of 1562 - 1563. could not crush the Huguenots.
Among the Huguenots there were many wealthy merchants and bankers who were able to hire significant detachments of professional soldiers from among their Swiss co-religionists. The Huguenots were supported by many aristocrats, in particular, Prince Louis de Condé, Admiral Gaspard de Coligny and King Henry of Navarre. The radical Catholic party was led by the family of the Dukes of Lorraine de Guise, which sought both to completely expel the Huguenots from France and to limit the power of the king. There was also a party of “politicians,” or moderate Catholics. They advocated maintaining Catholicism as the dominant religion and granting the Huguenots freedom of religion. In a number of cases they sided with the Huguenots against the Guises.
In 1563, Duke François de Guise won a victory at Droit, but was soon killed by an assassin sent by the Huguenots. The Huguenot army also won victories in the wars of 1567 - 1568 and 1568 - 1570. These wars were characterized by incredible cruelty on both sides. As a rule, they did not take prisoners, and sometimes entire villages were slaughtered if their inhabitants adhered to a different religion.
The Fourth War began in 1572 after Catholics massacred Huguenots who had gathered in Paris for the wedding of Henry of Navarre and Princess Margaret of Valois on August 24, 1572, St. Bartholomew's Day. More than 9 thousand people were killed, including Coligny and many other Huguenot leaders. A truce was reached in 1573, but in 1574 fighting resumed, but did not bring a decisive victory to either side.
In 1576, a royal edict was issued proclaiming freedom of religion throughout France, with the exception of Paris. During the new war of 1577, inspired by the Catholic League of Guise, the edict was confirmed, but King Henry III was unable to implement it. In 1580, another war broke out, without decisive consequences. But in 1585, when Henry of Navarre laid claim to the French throne, the bloody War of the Three Henrys began - Henry III, Henry of Navarre and Henry of Guise.
Henry of Navarre was victorious, despite the fact that his opponents had military support from Spain. He defeated Henry III at Cauterets in 1587. Henry III was forced to confirm freedom of religion. Then the Guises rebelled in Paris in 1588 and expelled the king from there. Henry made concessions to the leaders of the Catholic League, announced support for the exclusive rights of Catholics, but upon returning to Paris he organized the murder of Henry de Guise and his brother Cardinal Louis de Guise. Then, having enlisted the support of Henry of Navarre, declared heir to the throne, Henry III suppressed the League's actions, but in 1589 he was killed by a fanatic, the monk Jacques Clement.
He was succeeded by Henry of Navarre, who became Henry IV of Bourbon. But the Catholic League, which enjoyed particularly strong support among the population of Paris, refused to recognize him as king. Henry defeated the League at Acre in 1589 and at Ivry in 1590, but did not take Paris until 1594. To enter the capital of France, he had to convert to Catholicism.
The religious wars ended in 1598 with the peace treaty of Henry IV in Vervin, according to which Spain refused to support the Catholic League. In the same year, Henry issued the Edict of Nantes, which guaranteed freedom of religion and recognized the dominance of Protestantism in 200 cities where the Huguenots received the right to build fortifications. Formally, it can be considered that the Huguenots won a victory in the religious wars, but in fact it turned out to be imaginary. The vast majority of the French population remained faithful to Catholicism and sympathized with the ideas of the League.
France under Henry IV of Navarre
Henry IV enters Paris on March 22, 1594. Crowned a month earlier, he takes the throne for which he fought for years and for which he changed his faith: in France, where papists and Huguenots have reviled each other for three decades, Henry of Bourbon, King of Navarre, renounces Protestantism in order to ascend the throne.
Since being named sole legal heir by Henry III in 1589, Henry of Navarre has been laying the foundation of his power. He is opposed by Protestants, the Catholic League and “disaffected” or “political” moderate Catholics who condemn the excessive precautions of their coreligionists and want to restore royal power.
Henry IV sets the task of subordinating the leaders of the League to his power; The Duke of Mayenne is the first to join him, followed by the Duke of Epernon and the Duke of Merker. As for the Dukes of Guise, they become unshakable defenders of the throne.
Having come to power, King Henry IV strives to expel the Spaniards, who, convened by the Legists, occupy the north of France. The struggle lasts three years and ends with the capture of Amiens in 1597. In 1598, Spain returns all French conquests.
But the Religious Wars are not over. Catholics are not at all ready to recognize freedom of religion
Protestants, and Protestants (numbering about a million people) hesitate: whether to remain faithful to the king, who has renounced his faith. In 1594 - 1597 they organize themselves into provinces governed by assemblies, and proclaim a union with the Church of the Netherlands. In such circumstances, giving status to Protestant churches is a difficult task. Henry IV takes up the development of a new document: this will be the Edict of Nantes, promulgated in April 1598.
Difficult negotiations and the Edict of Nantes.
The king, in order to resist the resistance of the parties, has to use his personal qualities: authority and military prowess. In addition, the loyalty of his supporters and the moderation of the prelates play an important role.
The Edict of Nantes consists of a solemn declaration and secret articles so as not to provoke discord. Protestants enjoyed, in addition to freedom of conscience, freedom of worship in feudal estates, in two villages or villages per district and in all cities where the reformed cult actually existed. The secret articles contained a number of clauses preserving the advantages of Catholics. Protestants are allowed to build churches, conduct seminars, gather councils and synods, fathers of families have the right to choose a religion for their children, who will be accepted without any discrimination into all schools and universities. And finally, in exchange for restrictions, the king gives the Protestants 151 fortresses with or without a garrison, which gives the Protestants real political and military power.
In fact, the Edict of Nantes resumes many points of the previous edicts. But this time the king has the necessary power to make him respected. At first, Clement VIII expresses his dissatisfaction, but then resigns himself to it. France is experiencing an unusual event for Europe: faced with religious demands, civic interests, protected by politicians, are gaining the upper hand. But this compromise is fragile.
The plight of the people.
“No one has remembered such a terrible cold and such severe frost since time immemorial. Everything has become more expensive... Many people were found frozen to death in the fields... One man froze on his horse.” These lines from the “Memoirs” of the chronicler of that era, Pierre Lestoile, tell about the poverty of France, destroyed by wars and finding itself in the grip of an unprecedented cold. Grain production is falling, vineyards are freezing, textile factories are shutting down. The population is weakened and vulnerable to disease; There is a plague epidemic again. Peasant uprisings break out almost everywhere: the "gauthiers" in Normandy and the "crocans" in Périgord.
Henry IV begins to rebuild the state and issues numerous decrees to boost the economy. These decrees dealt with land use, such as the draining of swamps in 1599, as well as security and taxation issues. Against bands of mercenaries, thieves and vagabonds who devastate provinces, rob, kill, and terrorize people, the king introduces military laws. To calm the angry peasants, exhausted by taxes, the king establishes tax breaks and tries to limit the rights of landowners to peasant property. However, peasants still suffer from civil wars and rural revolts continue.
Running a state is not an easy task.
Many nobles are ruined, and to help them make their estates profitable again, Henry IV summons the Calvinist Olivier de Serray, who begins breeding mulberry trees to produce raw silk. In 1600, Serret published his Treatise on Agriculture, which is a collection of tips on how to properly manage a farm. This work, which the king distributes throughout the country, is a great success in publishing. A little later, Olivier de Serray published a small book, “On How to Get Silk,” about the production encouraged by Henry IV.
The rise in France also leads to a reorganization of government, administration and financial policy. Before making a decision, the king listens to the opinions of others. He organizes a new Council, which includes a limited number of people, and they are chosen according to competence rather than position. Throughout the day, the king constantly turns to them for advice.
These meetings, where business acumen reigns supreme, are conducted without ceremony. For example, Maximilien Rosny, Duke of Sully, superintendent of finance, enjoys the king's confidence, which allows the official to behave uninhibitedly. Sully, being a Protestant, at the request of the king, unravels various matters, and is also in charge of the financial affairs of the entire state.
The good governance of the provinces is due to the reliability of officials who have the power to investigate wrongdoing. Henry IV makes an original decision: in order to strengthen the ties between royal officials and authorities, constant contributions to the treasury are introduced, since the treasury in 1596 had a deficit of funds. We are talking about a tax, a pollet, an annual cash contribution that is paid by an official to the king for lifelong retention of office. The tax is named after the financier Field.
Until this point, many official positions passed from father to son, provided, however, that the “renunciation” of the position occurred at least 40 days before the death of the holder of this position. The tax eliminates this period. In return, the official pays a tax every year proportional to the position he holds. This tax, which brings in an annual revenue of one million livres, will last until the revolution. Inheritance of positions firmly binds the crown, judicial officials and financial officials, who receive privileges and honors. In 1600, these efforts begin to bear fruit throughout the kingdom. An accurate budget and monetary reform, which will be adopted in 1602, improve finances. Reserves of gold and silver are stored in the Bastille. The kingdom is expanding; the army, close to the heart of the king, is located on the right bank of the Rhone. In 1601, Bresse, Bugins, Valmory and the province of Gex will be annexed to France under the Treaty of Lyon. With the annexation of Navarre and northern cities, the area of the country increases from 464 thousand square meters. km up to 600 thousand sq. km.
Second marriage of convenience.
Henry IV's marriage to Catherine de' Medici's daughter Margaret was declared invalid on grounds of consanguinity and annulled by the Pope in 1599. So the king is free to remarry.
Henry IV wants to marry his mistress, Gabriella d'Estre, with whom he has a son, the Duke of Vendôme. But this intention outrages the French, who refuse to recognize the illegitimate as Dauphin. After Gabriella's sudden death, the king yields to his advisers: their candidacy, Maria Medici, the niece of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. After careful negotiations, she brings a significant dowry. A magnificent wedding took place in Lyon in December 1600. Nine months later, the queen gives birth to Henry IV's son, the heir, later the future king Louis XIII. Until 1609, she will give birth to the king. five children. Despite tender parental feelings, the king continues his love affairs, which will cost the kingdom dearly.
Princes' Conspiracy.
Henry IV returned peace to France and gave him an heir, but he would still have to speak out against anger and betrayal. Too many nobles in the king's chambers demand pensions and privileges for themselves. Especially higher nobility finds it difficult to submit to royal authority. The king awarded the rank of marshal to one of his old comrades in arms, Biron. He was a proud and restless man. He dreams of creating independent state from the province of Bourgogne and get rid of the king. Henry de la Tour d'Auvergne, Duke of Bouillon, shares his views. Foreign sovereigns of Savoy and Spain also support the spirit of the rebels, even negotiations began with the agents of Philip III of Spain. Warned of the conspiracy, the king summons Biron to Fontainebleau and tries to force him to confess. But The marshal remains silent. He is imprisoned, convicted of treason and beheaded in 1602.
On the other hand, the Duke of Bouillon continues his intrigues. In 1605, having settled in Sedan, he tries to recreate the Protestant union, but the attempt fails; he is forced to give up the keys to the city and seek refuge in Geneva. In 1606, sovereigns are subject to the king. And the country is finally coming to civil peace.
Under French arbitration, a 12-year truce is established between Spain and the United Provinces of the Netherlands. Simple, cheerful and pragmatic, Henry IV is liked by his subjects, as he gives them prosperity, work, and diplomatic success.
However, the struggle between Catholics and Protestants and the claims of Archduke Rudolf II of Habsburg threaten peace in Europe. On the other hand, the achievements of the Counter-Reformation worry the Protestants, and the old hostility towards the Habsburgs is renewed.
A love story is mixed into the complex political situation: the sovereign falls in love with Charlotte Condé. The constant presence of the king worries the wife of the young woman, who decides to take refuge in Brussels under the patronage of the Archduke. Passion for love pushes Henry IV to make a decision: he accelerates preparations for war, despite the hostile attitude of Protestants to this. On May 13, 1610, the solemn transfer of the regency to the queen took place in Saint-Denis. On May 14, the king's carriage is forced to be delayed due to a crowd on Ferronry Street. Suddenly a man appears and mortally wounds the king with a knife in the chest. The killer, François Ravaillac, an exalted Catholic, imagined himself to be a messenger from heaven. He was arrested, convicted and quartered on May 24.
France in the era of Cardinal Richelieu (XVII century).
Armand Jean du Plessis, Duke de Richelieu (September 9, 1585, Paris - December 4, 1642, ibid.), is the youngest son of the chief provost of France Francois du Plessis and Suzanne de la Porte, the daughter of a lawyer of the Paris Parliament. He was educated at the College of Navarre in Paris and prepared for military service, inheriting the title of Marquis du Chilloux. The middle brother's refusal to pursue a church career allowed Armand to take the name of Richelieu and the rank of Bishop of Luzon (1608-23). Elected as a deputy from the clergy to the States General (1614), he attracted the attention of the regent Maria de' Medici, became her adviser, confessor to Anne of Austria - the wife of Louis XIII, and then briefly secretary of state for foreign and military affairs. He fell into disgrace and was exiled to Avignon, however, by facilitating the reconciliation of Louis XIII with his mother, Richelieu managed to continue his career at court. In 1622 he received the rank of cardinal, in 1624 he joined the Royal Council, became first minister and remained the de facto ruler of France until the end of his life.
Cardinal Richelieu's program.
Richelieu's long reign, which had the unlimited confidence of Louis XIII, correlates with the rapid growth of the king's political authority as head of state. Wanting to achieve absolute power, the monarch embarks on the path of suppressing any resistance, limiting the privileges of individual cities and provinces and, ultimately, destroying opponents. On behalf of Louis XIII, Minister Richelieu implements this policy. In France, the desire for absolutism, which began in the time of Henry IV, causes discontent, resulting in scattered but violent opposition actions characteristic of the era of the Wars of Religion.
In his “Political Testament,” Richelieu describes in detail the program of government and defines the priority directions of domestic and foreign policy: “Since Your Majesty has decided to give me access to the Royal Council, thereby placing great confidence in me, I promise to apply all my dexterity and skill, coupled with powers that Your Majesty will deign to grant me, for the destruction of the Huguenots, the humiliation of pride and the exaltation of the name of the King of France to the heights at which it should be."
Many historians have been to some extent misled by Richelieu's Political Testament and Memoirs. It turned out that they were written much later by the cardinal minister and members of his cabinet. Diligent employees, selected by Richelieu himself, carefully worked on the image of the cardinal - politician, proving the need for certain actions of the first minister of the kingdom. During his time in power, violent measures were most often used to suppress resistance, regardless of who showed dissatisfaction - aristocrats, Huguenots, members of parliament or ordinary citizens.
State within a state.
The 20s of the 17th century were primarily marked by the end of the Religious Wars. Military officials and lawyers from the circle of Louis XIII (many of whom are Catholics) have no doubt that the Protestants want to create a state within a state in France with its own leaders, structure and politics. Already in 1610, there were about 200 Protestant fortresses, headed by commandants. Each such fortress city has a military corps, in which the commanders carry out the orders of the Huguenot aristocrats. And out of necessity, cities participating in the R.P.R. movement. (Religion Pretendue Reformee), according to Catholic terminology, can put up against the king their garrisons, noble formations and people's militia in the amount of 25 thousand people, which is much larger than the number of regular royal troops. The fortress of La Rochelle, with 20 thousand inhabitants, looks like a real capital of Protestants and is the last stronghold of the Huguenots in the heart of the monarchy. Thus, the royal state finds itself in a state of war with the Protestant state, whose individual rights and freedoms (such as the rights to political assembly, to fortify their cities, to the existence of their garrisons) were recognized in secret articles and appendices to the Edict of Nantes, signed in the spring of 1598.
Capitulation of La Rochelle.
Since 1621, numerous military campaigns have taken place in the southwest of the kingdom and in Languedoc. Most of them are led by Louis XIII, who personally participates in the battles. The end of the Religious Wars is associated with the famous historical episode - the capture of La Rochelle on October 29, 1628 after 11 months of siege of the fortress. Richelieu himself leads military operations. On his orders, a dam, impressive for those times, was built to isolate the city from the sea. The capitulation of the Huguenot fortress, often called the “capital of heresy,” was accompanied by an intense campaign to glorify Louis XIII the Just as a punishing and forgiving king. Proof of this is the ceremonial entry of the victorious king into Paris on December 23, 1628: congratulatory speeches, triumphal arches, military concerts, incessant ovations and fireworks follow one after another on this day.
Signed on June 28, 1629, the Edict of Ales expresses the royal will for mercy and forgiveness after a troubled decade. This document indeed preserves all the religious and legal provisions of the Edict of Nantes and the principle of “coexistence” in particular. However, all secret articles and annexes of the Edict of Nantes of 1598 concerning the political privileges of Protestants are annulled. Any political gathering is henceforth prohibited. Richelieu annuls the military articles of the Edict of Nantes and pursues a policy of systematic destruction of the fortress walls of Huguenot cities.
Royal family and Richelieu.
In the era of Richelieu, the political power of the first minister makes it possible to keep most of the aristocracy in relative subordination. Nevertheless, the highest nobility does not stop trying to regain its former greatness. Such an attempt took place in the Louvre on November 11, 1630, the day after the Feast of the Dupes. Queen Mother Marie de' Medici, dissatisfied with Richelieu's excessive power, quarrels with her son Louis XIII, demanding that the cardinal be removed from power. After a heated discussion, the cardinal's opponents consider him defeated. However, the king, contrary to the will of his mother, confirms Richelieu as first minister and imprisons his opponents, in particular the Minister of Justice Michel de Marillac. The Queen is forced into exile, first to Compiegne and then to Brussels.
Gaston d'Orléans, the king's brother and potential heir, since Louis XIII had no offspring until 1638, presents this event as Richelieu's betrayal of the queen mother and tries to raise his province against the cardinal. Defeated, Gaston d'Orléans hides in Lorraine, the duchy of Charles IV, who supports the policies of the Habsburgs, the rulers of the Netherlands and Spain and the traditional enemies of France. On May 31, 1631, in Nancy, Gaston d'Orléans publishes a manifesto in which he exposes Richelieu's absolute control over Louis XIII, the government and the kingdom. Later, Gaston d'Orléans takes part in the rebellion of the Duke of Montmorency in Languedoc, which was suppressed by regular royal troops. On October 30, 1632, the Duke of Montmorency was beheaded. This execution made a strong impression on the aristocracy and contributed to its temporary pacification. Thus, the second point of Richelieu’s “program” is fulfilled: to pacify the pride of the highest nobility.
Duels are illegal.
The nobility of the 17th century, the military and administrative support of the state, often resorted to dueling as a way of resolving conflicts. The state is no longer willing to tolerate acts of lynching, the victims of which are young people called to serve it. Shouldn't the highest justice come from the mouth of the king? A duel is an insult to the king personally, and, moreover, according to the explanations of great theologians, it is a crime against God. During the reign of Louis XIII, the strictest edicts, declaring dueling a “crime against the king” and prohibiting them, appeared one after another. But it's all in vain! On June 22, 1627, by order of Richelieu, Montmorency-Boutville, a nobleman who dared to fight in Paris on the Place Royale, symbolizing the central power, was beheaded. However, for another century the duel will be the subject of the most lively debate.
War in the service of absolutism.
At the same time Now is the time when foreign policy issues become a priority in politics: the Thirty Years' War goes beyond the borders of Germany and France is gradually drawn into this conflict. On May 19, 1635, Louis XIII solemnly declares war on Spain.
War becomes the most powerful factor in strengthening the authority of the king, who takes on the role of commander in chief. With its scale, human casualties and financial costs, the war justifies the use of extreme measures in the name of “urgent needs of the state.” These words begin many edicts that impose tax innovations on the people. Soon taxes to the treasury already exceed church tithes.
Policy 
state necessity, that is, the supreme power of the king, is embodied by intendants, who are endowed with higher powers than local officials. The intendants have the right to suppress discontent and rebellion in the province. Locally they form tribunals, the decisions of which can only be appealed to the Royal Council. Administrators - managers, quartermasters - interfere in local affairs and strive to gain control of the three branches of government: the police, the court and money.
Thanks to the unlimited power of the royal state, the development of a national taxation system, as well as the limitation of the powers of local government officials, the “years of Richelieu” are considered the time of the founding of absolutism, which would reach its apogee under Louis XIV.
France under Louis XIV.
The day after Mazarin's death, March 10, 1661, Louis XIV takes full power into his hands, and in a short period of time he manages to show France and Europe the image of an almighty king.
"The King is the State"
King Louis XIV. In 1673, the Italian adventurer Jean Baptiste Primi Visconti characterizes Louis XIV in his memoirs as a ruler who wants to “know and be able to do everything”: the king asks questions to ministers in order to better understand public affairs, to the chairman of parliament to learn how to govern, to judges , so as not to miss a single detail, and to the ladies, so as not to lag behind in the gallant sciences. At a superficial glance, the time of Louis XIV seems to be the era of the “king-state,” embodying the power of this state. After all, political power is in the hands of the monarch: since 1673, parliament has been prohibited from presenting its comments until the edicts and decrees have been signed by His Majesty. The palace ceremony, unfolding around the figure of the king, gradually becomes more complex and is transferred first to Fontainebleau, to Paris, then to Versailles.
The era of Louis XIV is also a time of unprecedented praise for a ruler, which brings to the stage the Sun King, surrounded by the most refined worship compared to other European monarchs. It is not at all accidental that he chose the solar emblem. As the king himself explains, the daylight directs its heat and light to the earth, and therefore everything around owes its life to it. The cult of the Sun King was implanted in all possible ways at that time: through words (plays and poems), images (paintings and engravings) and spectacles. The slightest occasions are also used to demonstrate popular adoration and worship.
Time for reform.
According to documents of that time, the period from 1661 to 1673 in the history of France is the most filled with all kinds of reforms. It was during these years that the monarchy tried to carry out a complete reorganization of state institutions in the social and economic sphere. Only 1667-1668 is excluded. - years of the Devolutionary War with Spain. In order to compile a simple list of the edicts, decrees, taxing letters, regulations, codifications issued at that time in all areas (Civil Code 1667, Penal Code 1670, Maritime Code, Black Code 1685, etc.), extraordinary procedures (for example, holding a mobile court session called “Great Days in the Auvergne” to investigate the outrages committed by the local nobility in 1665) would require a huge volume.
Colbert's politics.
Comptroller General of Finance of France Jean Baptiste Colbert. In 1664, the Comptroller General of Finance Jean Baptiste Colbert (1619 - 1683), who enjoyed the unlimited confidence of the king, presented his famous reform program to Louis XIV. Within its framework, Colbert is contemplating a series of reforms: to reduce the chronic gap between government revenues and expenditures, he plans to reduce debts and improve the budget. Since the government cannot put an end to the sale of positions, Colbert creates almost no new institutions; he also slows down the growth of direct taxes and increases indirect taxes several times (for example, excise tax on wine, various duties, gabelle - tax on salt). The Comptroller-General presents numerous reports to the King. In these documents, Colbert develops ways to enhance "the greatness, the power of the state and the splendor of the king."
The role of quartermasters and councils.
At the beginning of the reign of Louis XIV, 23 intendants of police, justice and finance are chosen from among the numerous masters of jurisprudence. Quartermasters with military functions contribute to the process of creating a regular royal army. With the growth of the power of intendants, the influence and powers of provincial governors are gradually reduced. These representatives of the old aristocracy are trusted less and less.
Following the example of the chief controller - the state, intendants create their own administrative apparatuses. From now on, they all strive to carry out such tax and economic policy which would be most beneficial to the state. The policy of constant monitoring and audits is becoming a rule, a norm. And the all-powerful secretaries of state with their numerous apparatus, dependent only on Colbert, become executors. Thus, seven royal councils govern all aspects of the country's political life. The main role belongs to the Council of State, whose members, together with the king, discuss all important issues of foreign and domestic policy; The Council of Despatches is the link between the intendants of the provinces; The Council of Finance deals primarily with the tax system; The Council of Private Affairs considers cases, which the participants submit for final decision to the king's court; The Spiritual Council is responsible for the appointment of the highest spiritual dignitaries of the state; The Council for the Affairs of “Religion Calling itself Reformed” deals with the problems of the Huguenots until the abolition of the Edict of Nantes in 1685; The Council of Trade, consisting of six government officials and 12 merchant delegates, reviews numerous complaints, letters and memos from merchants.
In the policy pursued by Colbert and implemented by the intendants, an important point is that the king is personally involved in the affairs of the state. Henceforth in the country all important documents must pass through the hands of the king himself, because the head of state is an instrument of divine providence; all power must belong to him and come from him. Any opposition in this case takes on a sharply negative character. The absolutism of power given from above also requires strict adherence to a single faith, which follows from the oath given by the head of state during the coronation.
The fight against Jansenism.
The fight against Jansenism and Protestantism reflects the king’s desire to realize the principle of a single faith and a single state. In other words, this struggle manifests itself in the suppression of religious freedom.
Jansenism, which arose in the 1640s, with its severity and tragic vision of salvation, attracted into its ranks some Catholics, mainly educated townspeople, as well as representatives of the officers, aristocracy and part of the bourgeoisie. The theological treatise on Augustine, written by C. Janseni in 1640, which is considered the manifesto of the movement, was condemned by Rome twice: in 1642 and 1653. Five theses of his teaching are declared heresy. The Jesuits emphasize the closeness of the Jansenist doctrine of predestination with Protestant dogmas. All this, coupled with the claims and discontent of the power structures of the kingdom, was brought as an accusation against Jansen and his official representative in France, Abbot de Saint-Cyran, abbot of the Abbey of Port-Royal, a stronghold of Jansenism.
On April 3, 1661, by decree of the royal council, all church ministers were required to sign a document condemning the five postulates of Jansenism. The Jansenists managed to come to an agreement with Rome, and in 1669 a truce was concluded with the royal authorities. However, Port-Royal in the eyes of Louis XIV still remains a hotbed of heresy and indignation. The Abbey shows resilience and serves as a refuge for all the dissatisfied: aristocrats disillusioned with royal absolutism and clergy high rank, unsatisfied in their claims to participate in government affairs. Repression was not long in coming: in 1679, the inhabitants of the monastery were expelled, and on October 29, 1709, by royal decree, the nuns of Port-Royal were exiled to other monasteries in France. Two years later, Port-Royal itself was destroyed to the ground.
The revocation of the Edict of Nantes and the flight of Protestants.
In the French kingdom of the era of Louis XIV, there are about a million adherents of Protestantism. And from the very beginning of the king's reign, the Huguenots were regularly mentioned in the memos of bishops and the reports of intendants. Protestants are presented in these documents as potential "republicans", "bad French" and opponents of the unity of state and church. All these accusations are sufficient to declare adherents of this trend in Christianity outcasts of society. This was a time of persecution of the Huguenots and their forced conversion to the Catholic faith. At this tense time, on October 18, 1685, the king revoked the Edict of Nantes “as unnecessary.”
In an atmosphere of religious intolerance, many Huguenots chose to go into exile. Their flight significantly complicates the economic situation in France, because it is mainly bourgeois and artisans who are leaving the country. They are hiding in Switzerland, in the Electorate of Brandenburg, as well as in England, Holland and even in the English colonies of America. The Protestant European powers took an irreconcilable position towards Louis XIV and in 1688, having concluded an alliance, the League of Augsburg, they began a war with France (the Orleans War of 1688 - 1697). The persecution of dissent in France led to the Camisard uprising, which was brutally suppressed.
Inflation and crop failure.
The persecution of the Protestants will darken the end of the Sun King's reign. The situation in the country is complicated by economic difficulties. The 1790s and 17th century were characterized by difficult weather conditions. The air temperature for six months of 1692 was below normal. The less cold year 1693 turns out to be unusually wet. At the same time, prices rise and production declines. After a crop failure in 1693, famine hits the country. In this year, the overall mortality rate reaches 20% of the entire adult population.
The policies of Louis XIV brought the kingdom into a state of constant war with someone. And war is expensive. Taxes are rising again. The basic tax increases by 35% between 1685 and 1695. The brilliance of the reign of the Sun King turns into fiscal oppression and poverty of the French people.
A series of Civil Wars that began in 1559 on religious grounds between Catholics, representatives of the traditional religion, and Huguenot Protestants, and continued until 1598. Equally, these wars are also called Civil or Huguenot, after the name of one of the warring parties.
The main reason for the confrontation was the systemic crisis in French society that arose after the unsuccessful end of the Italian Wars, amid the spread of reformation ideas of Calvinism among a significant part of the population. It is customary to talk about eight wars: 1562-1563, 1567-1568, 1568-1570, 1572-1573, 1574-1576, 1576-1577, 1579-1580, 1585-1598, active periods of which alternated with relatively peaceful years. The date of the mass armed confrontation between the parties is considered to be the massacre of the Huguenots in Vassy on March 1, 1562, which was carried out under the leadership of Duke Francois de Guise.
At the first stage of the war (until 1572), the Huguenots, who had always been in the minority, were convinced that they could convert all of France and establish a fair world order, for which it was necessary to have power over the king and the court. Attempts to seize by force the young monarchs Francis II (the Amboise plot of 1560) and Charles IX (the "surprise at Meaux" of 1567) were justified negative influence, which the ruling circle exerted on them. In the first case, these are the Dukes of Guise-Lorraine, the most influential Catholic family in the country; in the second, the queen regent, the Italian Catherine de Medici, the mother of the last three kings from the Valois dynasty, tried to pursue a policy of reconciliation of the parties and maneuvering between the warring camps.
The political leaders of the opposition were the princes of the blood from the Bourbon family - descendants of Louis IX the Saint, Antoine and his son Henry, kings of Navarre, the first heirs to the crown after Valois. They considered themselves undeservedly excluded from governing the country, openly intrigued against the crown and changed their religion depending on the circumstances. Their possessions, located mainly in the southwest of the country, including the sovereign Béarn and Navarre, became the stronghold and in many ways the material base of the entire Huguenot movement.
The most significant battles between Catholics and Huguenots in the 1560s. (under Dreux in 1562, Jarnac and Moncontour in 1568-69) did not end in favor of the Protestants. The latter, however, were able to retain four fortresses (including La Rochelle), which became the basis of the Huguenot confederation, which was abolished only in 1629 thanks to Cardinal Richelieu.
Catherine de' Medici took advantage of the deaths of the leaders of both religions (Constable Montmorency, Duke François de Guise, King Antoine of Navarre) and continued her attempts to play the role of arbiter in the confrontation between the parties. In order to consolidate another religious peace in Saint-Germain (1570), she decided to arrange the wedding of her daughter Margaret de Valois and Henry de Bourbon, King of Navarre, a Catholic and a Huguenot. By the time of the wedding in August 1572, a large number of guests of both religions had gathered in Paris, and the Huguenot idea of subjugating King Charles IX to its influence began to come to fruition. The Dukes of Guise, supporters of continuing the religious war (and contenders for the hand of Princess Margaret in the person of Henry of Guise), were removed from the court. The leader of the Protestants, Admiral Coligny, who became the most influential figure in the Royal Council, inclined the king to conflict with Spain.
The assassination attempt on the admiral by the Guises immediately after the royal wedding caused a negative reaction among the Huguenots, who demanded that the king punish the perpetrators. Apparently, the fear of Huguenot revenge and at the same time the desire to get rid of the heretical minority in one blow, using the eschatological sentiments of the bulk of the Parisians, prompted Catherine de Medici and her advisers to persuade the king to decide to destroy the Protestants. St. Bartholomew's Night, August 24, 1572, went down in history as the culmination of civil strife in France, when over 2 thousand people died as a result of a massacre in Paris. Later, similar events were repeated in other cities of the country.
The second stage of wars (until 1584), which gradually grew from a religious confrontation into a civil confrontation and became increasingly politicized, is associated with the reign of Henry III (1574-1589), who tried with all his might to bring the political situation under his control. In response to the creation of the Huguenot confederation in the south of the country, where royal jurisdiction no longer applied and main role played by Henry of Navarre, the king of France led the Holy League (also called the League), created by the Catholic nobility under the auspices of the Guises (1576). Despite some local wars, in general Henry III managed to maintain peace between the two parts of France until 1584. After the death of the king's brother François of Alençon, the problem of succession to the throne worsened, because Henry III himself had no children.
The final period in the history of the Wars of Religion begins with the “war of the three Henrys” - Valois, Bourbon and Guise - for the crown of France, which was characterized by desacralization and loss of authority by royal power, foreign intervention (financing by Elizabeth of England of Protestants, and Philip II of Spain of Catholics, invasion of German mercenaries) , complete disorganization of work state apparatus and separatism of certain regions. In 1585, Henry of Guise resumed the activities of the League, turning it into a military-political organization hostile to Henry III. Not without her influence, the king lost power in the capital during the Parisian uprising, the so-called. "Day of the Barricades" in May 1588, was forced to flee and later enter into an alliance with Henry of Navarre. Henry III's response was to order the murder of the Duke of Guise in the royal castle of Blois (December 1588), but the king himself died a few months later at the hands of a murderous monk, a supporter of the League.
Henry of Navarre, remaining the only legitimate contender for the throne, formally became Henry IV of France, but he had to reconquer his own country until 1598. Most of France could not accept the Huguenot and heretic king. Having successfully fought the forces of the League (at Arc and Ivry in 1589-90), which were supported by the Spanish troops that occupied Paris, Henry IV renounced Protestantism in 1593. The following year he was crowned at Chartres, since Reims was in his hands opponents, and a little later Paris accepted him as a legitimate monarch (Henry IV is credited with the words: “Paris is worth a mass”).
100 RUR bonus for first order
Select the type of work Diploma work Course work Abstract Master's thesis Practice report Article Report Review Test work Monograph Problem solving Business plan Answers to questions Creative work Essay Drawing Compositions Translation Presentations Typing Other Increasing the uniqueness of the text Master's thesis Laboratory work Online help
Find out the price
Religious or Huguenot wars- a series of protracted civil wars between Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots), which tore France apart under the last kings of the Valois dynasty, from 1562 to 1598. The Huguenots were led by: Bourbons(Prince of Condé, Henry of Navarre) and Admiral de Coligny, led by the Catholics - the Queen Mother Catherine de' Medici and the mighty Giza. Its neighbors tried to influence the course of events in France - Elizabeth of England supported the Huguenots, A PhilipIISpanish - Catholics. The wars ended with the accession of Henry of Navarre to the French throne and the publication of the compromise Edict of Nantes (1598).
Stages of wars:
1 First War 1560-1563
2 Second War 1567-1568
3 Third War 1568-1570
4 Fourth War 1572-1573
5 Fifth War 1574-1576
6 Sixth War 1576-1577
8 “The War of the Three Henrys” 1584-1589
9 "Conquest of the Kingdom" 1589-1593 (Internet)
In the 2nd half of the 16th century. in France there was a political crisis, which manifested itself in religious (civil) wars, which lasted for 32 years with interruptions.
Opposed dd: Catholicism and Calvinism.
Causes of religious wars:
1. Change in political system
2. Changes in traditional forms of relations in society in connection with the formation of Absolutism
3. Bonded tax policy of the crown (in the northern, western and central provinces)
4. Loss of previous freedoms of self-government (in the southern provinces).
Reason for religious wars:
1. The situation that developed in France after the Italian wars. The Peace of Cateau Cambresi (1559), which summed up the results of the Italian War, turned out to be fruitless and exposed the complexity of the economic and internal political situation in the country
2. The “Price Revolution” and the severity of taxes had an impact
3. Dissatisfaction of the nobility, provincial nobility and court aristocracy with the king’s policies, lack of privileges, new awards, positions and pensions, as well as the growing power of the bureaucracy and “upstarts” from the “people of the mantle”.
1559 - change of power: Henry II was mortally wounded at a tournament, he was replaced by his son, Francis II (reigned 1559 - 1560). For this short time, royal power weakened, which the opposition took advantage of.
Two groups formed: those who are for the Catholic king and against him - the Huguenots (accomplice, comrade) - Protestants; each nominated her candidacy for the throne.
1560 - conspiracy against F2, attempt at a palace coup by the Huguenots. Purpose: convening the Estates General; ensuring the interest of the prince of the blood Antoine Bourbon and the Huguenots. The conspiracy is revealed.
1560 - F2 dies. His brother Charles IX ascended the throne (1550 - 1574; reigned from 1560, Valois dynasty; under him there were numerous Religious Wars and the Night of St. Bartholomew on August 24, 1574 - the extermination of the Huguenots). His regent is his mother Catherine de Medici
4. 1562 - massacre of Huguenot Catholics in Champagne
5. 1574 - St. Bartholomew's Night. The king does not prevent the Huguenots from being dealt with in Paris - this prompted a fratricidal war.
Periods of religious wars:
1). 1562 - 1570
2). 1572 - 1576
3). 1580 - 1594
4). The Edict of Nantes in 1598 declaring Henry IV the official Gallican Church.
Stage No. 1 from 1562 to 1570.
1. The struggle was not fierce. The factions sought to capture the king and rule in his name. In 1570 - the edict of reconciliation in Saint-Germain
2. The king sought to control the hostilities and sought to reconcile the parties.
Stage No. 2 from 1572 to 1576.
1. Large-scale military operations began and everyone's action against the ruling dynasty
2. (!!!). 24/8/1574 - St. Bartholomew's Night, murder of Huguenots in Paris, several hundred people
3. The king did not prevent Catholics from dealing with the Huguenots - this is the beginning of a fratricidal war
4. Violation of the territorial integrity of the state due to religious schism:
A). 1575 - formed Huguenot Confederation with the Estates General in the south of France
b). 1576 - formed Catholic League with the Estates General under Henry III (reigned 1575).
Stage No. 3 from 1580 - 1594
1. Search for ways out of the crisis in wars and the search for reconciliation of the parties by Henry3.
1577 - another truce and dissolution of all confederations and leagues. Inflation increases and taxes rise.
Henry3 - childless, a Huguenot becomes the Dauphin (prince) - Henry of Navarre - fear for the future of the crown.
1584 - secret alliance of the restored Catholic League with Philip II (1527 - 1598; Habsburg dynasty; son of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor), the Spanish king. Goal: defense of the Catholic religion and extermination of heresy in France and the Netherlands
1585 - formation Paris League from traders, artisans, urban lower classes, wealthy burghers, lower Catholic clergy, students. Supreme body authorities - Council 16
May 1588 - the union of Henry3 with the Protestant Henry of Navarre. The beginning of unrest in Paris and Henry3 runs away from Paris. The city wishes for the return of the king, and he returns
October 1588 - an attempt to stabilize the situation, the convening of the Estates General - the decision was to continue the war.
December 1588 - The Estates General was dissolved by G3, because he did not want a war with the Huguenots and the murder on behalf of the king of the main Catholic - Henry of Guise. Catholic uprising in Paris
August 1589 - Henry3 is killed by Catholics in his military camp.
Victory of Henry of Navarre
1. A period of anarchy began. Devastation of lands by noble troops and mercenaries
2. The Spanish king Philip2 brought his garrison into Paris. Uprisings began in the cities, the peasantry began to rise
3. July 1593 - Henry of Navarre renounces Calvinism to ascend the throne
5. Mid-1598 - activation of the army of Henry of Navarre, the legal heir to the throne. Siege of Paris.
Henry of Bourbon, King of Navarre, became King of France under the name of Henry IV (1594 - 1610). The Bourbon dynasty is established.
March 1594 - Henry IV enters Paris. Makes a reasonable decision: not to persecute his opponents and not to confiscate their property.
Result of the war: The Edict of Nantes, promulgated by G4 in 1598, declared that there would be an official Gallican Church.
On March 1, 1562, in the village of Vassy (Champagne, France), the ardent Catholic Duke Francois de Guise and his retinue attacked a procession of Huguenots performing divine services. Most of the Protestants were killed, and this event itself (which went down in history as the massacre at Vassy) marked the beginning of the Wars of Religion in France, which lasted until the adoption of the Edict of Nantes in 1598.
The reason for the First French War was the Amboise Conspiracy and its brutal suppression by the Guizami. During the short reign of King Francis II, the Guise clan of zealous Catholics actually seized control of the country, which led to large-scale persecution of the Huguenots - the death penalty was introduced for their secret religious services. Discontent with the usurpers began to grow among the French aristocracy, which resulted in the Amboise Conspiracy of 1560. The conspirators, led by the leader of the Huguenots, the Prince of Condé, planned to kidnap the young King Francis and Queen Mary Stuart (who herself was from the Guise family) from Amboise Castle.
However, the conspiracy failed, the Guises brutally dealt with its participants, and Prince Condé himself was sentenced to death. From which he was saved by the sudden death of Francis II on December 5, 1560 - the young Charles IX of Valois ascended the throne, and actual power in the country passed to his mother Catherine de Medici. The Guises began to lose influence, and Louis Condé was released and brought closer to the court. Another Huguenot leader, Antoine of Navarre, was appointed lieutenant general of the French kingdom. Catherine tried to pursue a policy of religious tolerance, which resulted in the publication in January 1562 of the Edict of Saint-Germain (January), according to which Huguenots could practice their faith outside the city walls or in private city houses.
However, the Guises and their Catholic supporters, dissatisfied with the concessions to the Protestants and the growing influence of Conde, the Bourbons and Admiral Coligny, formed the so-called “triumvirate” (François de Guise - Duke of Montmorency - Marshal Saint-André). The triumvirs decided on open armed action, immediately starting negotiations with Catholic Spain about a joint fight against the Protestants.
The beginning of the First War of Religion is considered to be March 1, 1562, when the Duke of Guise, violating the Edict of January, attacked with his retinue the Huguenots who were worshiping in the town of Vassy in Champagne. Several dozen people were killed and about 100 participants in the meeting were wounded. After this, the triumvirs captured Charles IX and the Queen Mother at Fontainebleau and forced them to revoke the Edict of January. In response, the troops of Condé and his associate François d'Andelot took Orleans, turning the city into the capital of the Huguenot resistance. The Huguenot leaders also secured foreign support by concluding an alliance with the German Protestant princes, as well as with England, where Queen Elizabeth I reigned at that time. The latter, in defiance of Spain, actively supported Protestants throughout Europe.
In 1562, the triumvirs took Rouen, preventing the unification of the English and Huguenot forces in Normandy. During these battles, Conde's army suffered losses, Antoine of Navarre died. But soon reinforcements from Calvinist Germany arrived to the Protestants, the Huguenots reached Paris, but unexpectedly returned back to Normandy. On December 19, 1562, at Dreux, Prince Conde was defeated by Catholics and captured. However, things were no better for the Catholics - the Protestants killed the enemy Marshal Saint-André and captured Constable Montmorency. Admiral Coligny, who led the Huguenots, returned to Orleans. Guise besieged the city, but unexpectedly for everyone he was killed by the Huguenot Poltro de Mere.
Weakened by the loss of their leaders, each of whom (Montmorency and Condé) was captured by the enemy, both parties began to seek peace. Queen Mother Catherine also strived for this, after the death of Francis II she entrusted the management of the state to the moderate chancellor Michel de L'Hopital. In March 1563, the leaders of the Huguenots and Catholics, through the mediation of the queen, signed the Peace of Amboise, which guaranteed Calvinists freedom of religion in a limited range of regions and possessions. Its conditions mainly confirmed the Edict of Saint-Germain.
