Linguistics is the science of language. She studies the language from different points of view, therefore she is divided into several directions. The most common division is vocabulary and grammar; the latter, in turn, is divided into morphology and syntax, which we will talk about.

Basic syntax concepts

So, what does syntax study in Russian? This is the science of the connection of words in phrases and sentences. Even words chosen according to their meaning cannot be considered a sentence until they “hold hands” - connect with each other in a certain way, forming a structure. Deviation from the rules threatens even a complete distortion of the meaning. Compare: The puppy barked at the guest. The guest barked at the puppy. We simply changed the case of the nouns, following which their syntactic role changed (the subject became an object and vice versa), and as a result the meaning was distorted. In this example, we see how important it is to correctly link words in a sentence and how important morphology plays in this.

So, the basic units of syntax are phrases and sentences (simple and complex). Children become acquainted with them in elementary school, but this topic is fully studied and generalized in 8th grade.

Collocation

A phrase is two words connected by a grammatical subordination. It performs a nominative function (names).

Traditionally, only subordinating phrases are considered, that is, those in which we can pose a question from one word to another; however, some scientists believe that there are also predicative phrases (subject and predicate) and coordinating phrases (homogeneous members).

In a phrase, one word is the main word (from which we pose the question), the other is dependent.

Based on the main word, we characterize the phrase: it is nominal (the main word is a noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun), verbal (verb, participle, gerund) or adverbial (adverb).

Using the dependent word, we determine the type of connection between words in the phrase: agreement (the dependent word agrees with the main word in gender, number and case and changes with it), control (the dependent word is prescribed a certain form in which they appear), adjacency (the dependent word - unchangeable part of speech).

Here are some examples:

• cheerful hedgehog, cheerful hedgehog, cheerful hedgehog - agreement;
• I go to the forest, you go to the forest, goes to the forest - management;
• turn right - junction, because “to the right” is an unchangeable part of speech.

The subject and the predicate are not a phrase, so there is a predicative, not a subordinating connection between them: we can pose a question both from the subject to the predicate (what is the cat doing? sitting), and from the predicate to the subject (who is sitting? the cat).

Offer

A sentence, unlike a phrase, performs a communicative function (transfer of information). It is pronounced with some intonation.
Features of the offers:

• express a complete thought;
• pronounced with any intonation;
• have a grammatical basis;
• have boundary markers: capital letter at the beginning, end of sentence mark at the end.

The semantic and grammatical center of a sentence is the grammatical basis of the sentence. Only incomplete sentences that are unable to perform a communicative function outside of context can do without a grammatical basis.

In addition to the main ones, a sentence may have secondary members (addition, definition and circumstance). If they exist, the proposal is called widespread; if not, it is called unextended.

It is also customary to characterize sentences by the purpose of the statement (narrative, interrogative, incentive), by intonation (exclamatory or non-exclamatory), and by the composition of the grammatical basis (one-part or two-part). A sentence may be complicated by inversion, introductory or insertion constructions, or isolated members.

If a sentence has more than one grammatical stem, it is complex.

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SYNTAX(from the Greek “structure, order”) is a section of grammar that characterizes the rules for creating sentences and phrases. The syntactic structure together with the morphological structure is the grammar of the language. The essence of grammar and morphology contributes to their distribution into sections of grammar.

Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the syntactic structure of language, namely phrases, sentences, text, ways of combining phrases into sentences, sentences into text, constructing simple sentences and combining them into complex ones.

It is very difficult to separate syntax and morphology. Morphology studies the forms and meanings of words, and syntax studies the compatibility of words and the construction of sentences.

What is the role of syntax in modern language? Literally from the Greek word " syntax" means "order" and indicates that it is necessary to organize individual units of language - words. The presence of syntax in human life is associated with the need of people to communicate, the desire to construct their speech in such a way as to more clearly convey information and their emotions. In one word, a person cannot convey everything his thoughts and emotions, but uses more complex speech elements in his speech - this is a phrase, sentence, text.

A phrase is a group of words that are connected grammatically and meaningfully. Very often in speech there are errors in the structure of phrases, both grammatical and semantic, for example, terrible beauty, beautiful girl. The transitional element from lexico-morphological to syntactic is the syntax of phrases. By using syntax individual words are structurally formed into sentences.

A sentence is a set of words that are related in meaning and have a grammatical basis. If there is one grammatical basis, then the sentence is simple, if there is more, then it is complex. The sentence has a complete meaning and intonation completeness.

The phrase itself defines a phenomenon, action, object, and the sentence already reproduces emotions, thoughts, desires. Syntax is a universal tool that contributes to the correct construction of human speech. Sometimes it is very difficult to understand the speech of a small child or a foreigner who does not know the basic rules syntax.

A sentence is the minimum unit of communication. The syntactic properties of words are manifested not only in sentences, as an element of communication, but also in phrases, as semantic and grammatical combinations of words. Syntax studies the structure of sentences, their grammatical properties and types, and a phrase as the smallest combination of words connected grammatically. Thus, we can distinguish between the syntax of a sentence and the syntax of a phrase.

Syntax this is a reflection of the creative component of language. After all, in the process of communication, new sentences are constantly being built, new phrases arise. Syntax is an area of ​​grammar that studies the emergence of a huge number of phrases and sentences from a finite set of words.

Language is a system that consists of closely interacting levels: phonetic, morphemic, morphological, lexical, syntactic. The latter combines all the previous ones and forms a separate complex subsystem.

What is syntax in Russian. Syntax is a science that studies the structure of written and spoken language. Wikipedia gives the following definition: this is a part of grammar that indicates the rules for combining words within phrases and sentences.

What syntax studies: texts, individual sentences and phrases, their structure, composition, functions, role in oral and written speech.

The subject of study of science is the rules for combining words, word forms and phrases, their analysis from the point of view of communicative orientation.

To achieve this goal, researchers in this area of ​​linguistics need:

• formulate a definition for the concepts of “syntactic units”, determine their structure, functions and meaning;
• study grammatical forms and categories of syntactic units, establish connections and dependencies between them;
• describe the structure and types of units at this level, determine their role;
• analyze structural and semantic types of syntactic units;
• identify, describe and compare the means that are used for communication, explore ways of expressing relationships within and between elements.

Pay attention! The goal of science is to study the grammatical form and meaning of syntactic units.

Sections

Syntax as a branch of the science of language includes three sections that systematically study different structural elements of speech. Sections of syntax form their own tasks, goals, object and subject.

Offer

The subject of study is a unit of speech that speakers and listeners perceive as a grammatical whole. It serves to verbalize thinking.

Its structure includes:

• subject;
• predicate.

The features of a sentence are grammatical and ideological integrity, logical completeness, predicativeness (the presence of at least one main member), semantic design.

Syntax explores the typology of these units, the methods of communication in them, and the types of their elements.

Pay attention! The syntax of simple and complex sentences is distinguished.

Collocation

The study of phrases seeks answers to the following questions:

• Does a phrase exist outside of contexts, or is it always secondary, isolated from a ready-made utterance?
• Is it possible to separate predicative phrases (subject plus predicate) into a separate class?
• Is it possible to separate homogeneous members of a sentence into a separate class?

What is a phrase

Researchers of the phrase have different understandings of its nature. Someone identifies this unit as a syntactic unity that we isolate from a sentence. Others call this term any words that are related grammatically and in meaning.

The syntax of the phrase is the study of these views.

Text

This branch of linguistic science studies the organization of text and the connections between individual sentences.

Text: definition of concept

The objects of study of this section are:

• structural diagrams of simple and complex sentences;
• schemes of a complex syntactic whole;
• text structure;
• between sentences of a complex syntactic whole.

The syntax of the text helps to evaluate the structural features of the text, to establish a connection between them and the communicative orientation of each unit of this level. This is necessary for carrying out linguistic analysis of the text.

Basic Level Units

Branches of linguistics operate with their own units. For example, in phonetics it is a sound, in lexicology it is a lexeme.

Syntax units

The main elements in the syntax are:

• phrase – two or more words that are connected by subordinating relationships. The main function is nominative;
• a sentence is a particle of speech that is used to form, express and convey thoughts. Performs communicative, nominative functions;
• syntaxeme is a word in its syntactic functioning, as a carrier of a syntactic function. For example, in the statement “Evening has fallen on the city,” the word “evening” is a syntax that plays the role of a predicate.

Each of them is the object of study of the corresponding section of this science.

History of the study

Throughout the development of linguistics, this section of linguistics has been studied from the perspective of the following aspects:

• logical-grammatical (beginning and end of the 17th century). It is based on the idea that a sentence is a complete analogue of a logical proposition;
• psychological. Representatives: O. Potebnya, A. Fortunatov. They drew parallels between a sentence and a psychological judgement;
• formal-grammatical (A. Peshkovsky). Language was considered as a system that operates according to its own internal laws, and the formal indicators of sentences were studied;
• structural and grammatical. Representatives of this direction separated logic and psychology from this level and argued that all its units should be studied based on their own knowledge, without reference to logical categories;
• communicative. This view of science and its units remains relevant to this day. The study of a sentence and its elements is carried out based on their role in oral and written speech.

Syntactic units

These aspects are compared with the main stages of studying this section of science:

1. Greco-Roman period, Middle Ages (logical and grammatical campaigns).
2. Classical linguistics, “traditional” (formal-grammatical and structural-grammatical approaches).
3. Modern linguistic approaches.

At the present stage of studying this branch of science, the focus of research is on issues related to the active development of the Internet and virtual communication: media syntax, transformation of texts and their elements under the influence of social networks, non-linear syntax (means of graphically highlighting words and phrases: variations of fonts, small and capital letters).

Syntax in literature

In the literature, syntactic methods of expression are distinguished.

There is a separate term - “poetic syntax”, which unites all the means associated with the use of phrases and sentences in order to realize a specific artistic goal.

Examples of funds:

• – the use of “dissected” punctuation and intonation statements to focus attention on emotions, events, and elements of the narrative. For example: “He gave me the long-awaited ring. Golden. With a huge stone. Made of white gold. As I dreamed";
• syntactic anaphora is the repetition of identical structures in prose or poetry. For example: “Will I hear your words? Will I hear an apology? I will only hear the rain and I will only hear my broken dreams.”
• epiphora - repetition of identical words at the end of short segments of speech. Characteristic of folklore and folk songs;
• parallelism - the arrangement of elements similar in syntactic structure in adjacent poetic or prose elements of the text;
• oxymoron – a phrase that combines logically uncombinable lexemes (“living corpse”, “bitter sugar”, “sharp stupidity”);
• asyndeton - deliberate omission of all types of connections: conjunctions, connecting words. This gives the text dynamism and speed;
• polysyndeton - a deliberate increase in the number of connecting words and conjunctions in a sentence. This creates additional pauses and slows down the tempo of the piece. For example: “What about me? But what about everything that happened? What about the days? Weeks? How is everything?” Using this tool, you can add additional tragedy and emotionality to the text;
• rhetorical figures - questions (not requiring an answer), exclamations (transmission of emotions) and appeals (generalized);
• – violation of word order, in poetic language this is accepted as the norm. Using inversion, you can create a rhythmic text, highlight the necessary words and phrases, and convey emotions;
• ellipsis - omission of a linguistic element, ignoring the predicate or subject. For example, together “And I sent you a postcard” - “And I sent you a postcard.”

These devices are also called poetic figures of speech. They are used for artistic expression and conveying expressiveness.

Subject and fundamental concepts of syntax. The term “syntax” (from the Greek syntaxis “composition”, “construction”, “order”, “structure”) is used in two meanings: 1) syntactic structure, a special tier of language, including a set of syntactic phenomena; 2) a section of grammar that studies the laws and rules for constructing coherent speech in its individual fragments.

Syntax in the meaning of “syntactic structure, a special tier of language” correlates with “an objectively existing system of syntactic means and rules for their use, which is at the disposal of the speaking community”, “directly correlates with the process of thinking and the process of communication : units of other levels of the language system participate in the formation of thought and its communicative expression only through syntax. This is the specificity of syntax as a real phenomenon and as a scientific object.”

As a section of grammar, syntax is focused on the scientific comprehension of the syntactic structure of language and the rules for constructing speech. The object of study in syntax is communicative language means of varying complexity and their constituent parts through their relationship to the whole. Syntax is characterized as “the organizing center of grammar.”

The term “syntax” has recently also been used to refer to subsections allocated within the “Syntax” section (for example, they talk about the syntax of a phrase, the syntax of a sentence, etc.), and directions in syntactic science (structural syntax, semantic syntax, functional syntax etc.).

The fundamental concepts of syntax as a science about the syntactic structure of language, about the laws and rules for constructing coherent speech are: “syntactic connection”, “syntactic units”, “syntactic meaning”, “syntactic function”, “syntactic form”, “syntactic category”.

The six concepts mentioned - “syntactic connection”, “syntactic units”, “syntactic function”, “syntactic meaning”, “syntactic form”, “syntactic category” - are initial, cross-cutting for syntax, without them scientific description and comprehension is hardly possible syntactic structure of the language. These concepts are closely related to each other, so any of them can be characterized only using correlative concepts.

In this introduction, the concepts of “syntactic connection”, “syntactic units”, “syntactic function”, “syntactic meaning”, “syntactic form”, “syntactic category” are given the most preliminary, very abstract characteristics. The specific content of these concepts, in other words, a kind of “ascent from the abstract to the concrete” when interpreting them, will be carried out in the course of presenting the content of individual sections of the syntax.

Syntactic connection- these are various kinds of formal and substantive relationships between the components of individual fragments of speech (see the section “The doctrine of syntactic connection”). So, for example, in the phrase copper samovar words reveal a connection between themselves as meaningful (adjective copper denotes an attributive feature of a noun samovar), and formal (dependent adjective copper formally consistent with the reference name samovar in the masculine gender, singular, nominative case).

Syntactic unit- this is a certain fragment of coherent speech, characterized by a different volume and possessing to varying degrees the characteristics of the whole, i.e. coherent speech. Syntactic units differ from each other in structural, content and functional characteristics.

The undisputed syntactic units are the phrase and the simple sentence. In various university textbooks, along with the named syntactic units, other syntactic units of a higher level are also distinguished - a complex sentence and a complex syntactic whole. This book also discusses a lower-level unit called the term syntaxeme.

The constitutive syntactic features of each of the named syntactic units are reflected in the specific trinity “meaning – function – form”, peculiar only to it. The dialectical trinity “meaning – function – form” can be represented as a set of questions “what? - For what? - How?".

Syntactic meaning– this is abstract content expressed in syntactic units. The essence of the concept of “syntactic meaning” can be expressed in the question “what?”: WHAT does this or that syntactic unit represent, WHAT does it express?

Syntactic units can express different syntactic meanings: attributive (attributive), adverbial of various types (causal, spatial, target, temporal, conditional, etc.), objective of various types (direct object, instrumental object, addressable object, etc.). ), the meaning of predicativeness, etc. So, for example, in the phrase copper samovar defining relations are expressed in a phrase read a book - direct object relations, etc.

The most abstract syntactic meaning inherent in any sentence is predicativity, which characterizes the content of the sentence through its relationship to reality - either as a real fact that has temporal certainty ( Children play lapta; The children played lapta; Children will play rounders), or as an unreal fact without temporal certainty ( Children would play rounders; Let the children play rounders).

To denote syntactic meaning, other synonymous terms are also used - “syntactic relations”, “semantic (substantive) relations”, “syntactic meaning”.

Syntax function– purpose, role of a syntactic unit, syntactic means and categories in speech, in a communicative act, in the construction of a communicative unit. The essence of the concept of “function” can be expressed by the question “for what?”: WHAT are syntactic units, syntactic means and categories in speech used for? Yes, the phrase copper samovar intended to be material for the construction of communicative units (cf.: There was a copper samovar on the table; We drank tea from a copper samovar; Mother went out into the yard with a copper samovar in her hands etc.). As part of a sentence, each of the constituent components of a given phrase performs the function of an independent member of the sentence, i.e. fits into the positional structure of the sentence. The importance of the concept of function for syntax is noted by many modern scientists.

The concepts of “syntactic meaning” and “syntactic function” are quite similar in content. Syntactic meaning can be created through functioning, so we can talk about the functional semantics of linguistic units. On the other hand, the function of a linguistic unit can be determined by its syntactic semantics; in such cases we can talk about a semantic function.

The difference between the concepts of “syntactic meaning” and “syntactic function” is as follows : the concept of “syntactic meaning” is aimed at the internal content of a syntactic unit, considered separately, without relation to the including structure; the concept of “syntactic function” is focused on identifying the role of a syntactic unit in the composition of units of a higher level.

Function and meaning in some cases may overlap and be isosemic, while in other cases they clearly diverge. For example: syntactic meaning of syntaxeme at school– adverbial place; in a sentence it can perform different syntactic functions - as an isosemic function, that is, the function of an adverbial place ( At school there is a garden), and a non-isosemic function, for example, a function of inconsistent definition ( Garden at school very well maintained). It should be noted that in the second case the syntax at school, being an inconsistent definition, still retains its internal spatial semantics.

Syntactic form is a concept that generalizes the structural features of syntactic units. The essence of this concept is expressed by the general question “how?”: HOW is the syntactic unit constructed, HOW is it organized structurally? The structural characteristics of syntactic units depend on the complexity of the structure of the latter. The more complex the syntactic unit, the greater the range of structural features it has.

The formal, structural characteristics of syntactic units include, in particular, the means of communication presented in a syntactic unit, syntactically significant ways of morphological or syntactic expression of its components, structural diagrams (models) of constructing syntactic units, etc.

For example, the structural features of the phrase copper samovar can be characterized as follows: this is a two-component (binary) combination of words, consisting of a supporting noun samovar masculine, having the form of the nominative case, singular, and its dependent adjective copper, which agrees with the reference word in the masculine gender, singular, nominative case; the connection between the components is expressed using the ending of the adjective. This phrase is constructed according to the typical structural scheme AN, where A is the sign-symbol of an adjective (and other adjectival words), N is the sign-symbol of a noun. The syntactic form acts as a carrier of the syntactic meaning and syntactic function of a particular linguistic unit.

To characterize various aspects of the formal structure of syntactic units, the concepts of “syntactic structure”, “syntactic construction”, “structural diagram” can also be used.

The concepts of “syntactic meaning”, “syntactic function”, “syntactic form” together constitute the dialectical trinity “meaning – function – form”, reflecting the relationship and interaction of content, functional and structural features of syntactic units.

Syntactic category is a concept denoting the unity of a certain syntactic meaning and a set of diverse forms of its expression. If we assume that a language category is “any group of linguistic elements distinguished on the basis of some common property,” then a syntactic category can be defined as any group of syntactic elements distinguished on the basis of the commonality of any syntactically significant properties. And any commonality (sameness) presupposes the presence of distinctive properties in the elements being combined. So, for example, the syntactic category of modality represents the unity of the syntactic meaning of reality/irreality and the set of forms of expression of this meaning (forms of mood, intonation, particles, etc.); The syntactic category of subjectivity represents the unity of the syntactic meaning of the carrier of the predicative feature and the many different ways of expressing it: the nominative case ( I I feel chills), dative or accusative subject ( To me Cold; Me chills), instrumental subject ( The house is worth it carpenters ), personal verb endings( Love yu wander through the autumn forest).

Comparative characteristics of syntactic units. It should be noted that the question of the number of syntactic units has not received an unambiguous solution either in the scientific or educational literature. In different university textbooks and manuals, the number of syntactic units ranges from two to five. In this case, it is possible to identify different degrees of recognition of the identified syntactic units. If only two syntactic units are distinguished, then this is necessarily a phrase and a sentence. If we talk about three syntactic units, then, as a rule, this is a phrase, a simple sentence and a complex sentence. If we are talking about four syntactic units, then, of course, a phrase, a simple sentence, a complex sentence and a complex syntactic whole are recognized as such.

The logic of the movement of thought when identifying syntactic units also involves identifying an elementary syntactic unit from which phrases are built, as well as, partially, simple sentences. Such an elementary syntactic unit received a terminological designation through the concept of “syntaxeme” (or “syntactic form of a word”) and is described in detail in the works of G.A. Zolotov.

Taking into account the above, our book adopts a five-component system of syntactic units : syntaxeme, phrase, simple sentence, complex sentence, complex syntactic whole. Let us present a preliminary, most general characteristic of the five listed syntactic units.

Syntaxeme(or syntactic form) refers to the primary, elementary units of syntax, from which higher order syntactic units - phrases and simple sentences - are formed and divided into: in the closet, out of fear, by law, from clay, read, run, man, books etc. Syntaxemes are carriers of elementary syntactic meanings - subjective, object, attributive, spatial, causal, target and other types of relations. The systematized repertoire of syntaxemes as elementary syntactic units received a lexicographic representation in the Syntactic Dictionary of G.A. Zolotov.

Syntaxeme is a unit that links morphology and syntax : it represents a morphological form viewed from a syntactic perspective, i.e. as an element of syntactic constructions. For example, the word form due to illness when viewed through the lens of syntax, causal meaning is assigned. In accordance with this meaning, this word form can function as part of a sentence as an adverbial cause ( He didn't come to class due to illness), as an inconsistent definition with additional causal meaning( There is no penalty for absence due to illness). As a syntactic unit, a syntaxeme has its own formal features, syntactic meaning (it is the bearer of elementary meaning), and functional properties.

Collocation is a minimal syntactic unit in which the signs of coherent speech are presented explicitly. A phrase is a grammatical combination of two or more significant words, grammatically formalized through a subordinating relationship, resulting from the spread of a reference word: blue scarf, laughing fun, river bank. According to their form and syntactic meaning, syntaxes and phrases cannot perform a communicative function; they participate in the construction of communicative units and only within their framework participate in the communication process. Therefore, syntaxeme and phrase are syntactic units at the pre-communicative level. Within the framework of syntax, they perform a nominative function, being the names of individual fragments of situations designated in sentences.

Communicative units (or units of the communicative level of syntax) include a simple sentence, a complex sentence and a complex syntactic whole. It is these units, in their meaning and structure, that are intended to perform a communicative function.

Simple sentence- this is a minimal, monopredicative communicative unit, which contains one grammatical core, which expresses the unified relationship of the entire content of the sentence to reality. For example: A volatile limestone haze hovered over the lowland(L. Leonov); Silence in the stuffy air(F. Tyutchev); I'm tired of waiting(N.V. Gogol); It was quiet and damp in the forest(V. Nabokov).

Complex sentence is a communicative polypredicative syntactic unit, the components of which are simple sentences interconnected by one or another type of syntactic connection. The polypredicativity of a complex sentence is due to the fact that each of the simple sentences in its composition has its own predicativity, represented in its predicative core by the categories of tense and mood, and the entire complex sentence as a whole expresses multiple references to reality. For example: The sun rose higher and higher, the city was evenly illuminated, and the street came to life...(V. Nabokov); The silence of the taiga and mountains would have crushed people, if not for the river - it alone made noise throughout the entire area(V. Shukshin).

Complex syntactic whole- this is a minimal fragment of text, consisting of simple and complex sentences, interconnected by means of interphrase communication and united by a common micro-theme. For example: The dispute between generations is the law of life. Each new generation begins by challenging the experience of the previous one. This law applies not only on a broad public scale(K.Ya. Vanshenkin).

Between the named five syntactic units - syntaxemes, phrases, simple sentences, complex sentences, complex syntactic wholes - hierarchical relations are established between sequential entry into each other (when viewed from below) and sequential division of more complex syntactic units into simple ones until the limit of their division is obtained ( when viewed from above).

In the five-component system of syntactic units, the simple sentence occupies a central place. This is determined primarily by the fact that a simple sentence is a minimal communicative syntactic unit designed to convey relatively complete information. In addition, a simple sentence is a kind of starting point for a complex sentence and a complex syntactic whole (since a simple sentence participates in their formation) and an ending point for a phrase and syntaxeme (since it is in its composition that the named units find their application). The centrality of the position of a simple sentence in the system of syntactic units is also due to the fact that it is on the material of a simple sentence that many theoretical concepts of sentences, developed within the framework of the vast majority of scientific directions in syntax, are built.

The structure of syntax as a branch of the science of language. Syntax as a section of grammar has its own internal structure. In this book, the syntax is presented as a complex of eight sections, each of which is united by the unity of the subject of description:

1. The doctrine of syntactic connection.

2. Syntax of the syntaxeme.

3. Syntax of the phrase.

4. Syntax of a simple sentence.

5. Syntax of a complicated sentence.

6. Syntax of a complex sentence.

7. Syntax of a sentence with direct speech.

8. Syntax of a complex syntactic whole.

The first section of syntax is devoted to the description of syntactic connections. The doctrine of syntactic connection is highlighted in the first section, since the subject of syntax is connected speech and the initial concept of syntax is the concept of connection.

Sections “Syntax of a syntax”, “Syntax of a phrase”, “Syntax of a simple sentence”, “Syntax of a complex sentence”, “Syntax of a complex syntactic whole” are highlighted according to the types of syntactic units.

A separate section is “Syntax of a complicated sentence.” It should be noted that a complicated sentence is not classified as a special syntactic unit in any of the known syntax textbooks. However, a complicated sentence has its own theory, its own system of terms, its own structural, semantic and functional features, which makes it possible to raise the question of the possibility of identifying the corresponding type of sentence as a special syntactic unit.

The selection of the section “Syntax of a sentence with direct speech” is due to the fact that this type of sentence, due to its specific content, constructive, and functional properties, cannot be unconditionally included either in the system of complex sentences or in the system of a complex syntactic whole. Due to the fact that sentences with direct speech are in transformational relationships with sentences with indirect speech, this section proposes a description of the general rules for transforming sentences with direct speech into complex sentences with indirect speech.

Adjacent to “Syntax” as a section of the science of language is “Punctuation”, which is included, along with “Spelling” and “Graphics”, in the “Theory of Written Speech”.

Syntax in the language system. The sphere of syntax concentrates those linguistic means that directly serve for communication and without the use of which communication cannot be carried out. To formulate a thought, it is not enough to know only words and their forms; it is necessary to establish connections between them, to correlate what is being communicated with reality.

The direct connection of syntax with thinking and communication determines the place of syntax in the system of language tiers. The language is divided into phonetic, lexical, word-formative, morphological, and syntactic tiers. Syntax is the highest tier, “crowning the multi-story building of language.”

Like the upper tier of language, syntax relies on the lower tiers. As we move from the lower tiers of the language towards syntax, syntactically significant characteristics of linguistic units, categories, and phenomena studied in “Phonetics,” “Vocabulary,” “Word Formation,” and “Morphology” accumulate.

The syntactic side of the language begins to be studied in phonetics. The syntactically oriented element of the phonetic structure of a language is intonation. Intonation design is a necessary feature of any communicative unit. Through intonation, communicatively significant components of statements are also highlighted.

The syntax detects connections with vocabulary. Syntactic features of lexical units are taken into account during their communicative semantic classification. Typical meanings of lexical units predetermine the most frequent types of their functioning as part of a sentence. So, for example, words with a temporal meaning quite often function as adverbs of time: summer, winter, hour, year, minute etc.: In a year he joins the army; They came to us last in winter; In a minute the bell will ring. Words with spatial meaning are focused on frequency functioning as an adverbial adverbial place: On the way a winter, boring greyhound troika runs; Near the forest there is a small village; In the meadow horses are grazing. The lexical factor also predetermines the different functioning of identical morphological forms. Wed: come up to the table (circumstance of place) and come up by evening (circumstance of time) , speak with excitement (circumstance of the course of action) and speak with a friend (addition) .

The nature of the lexical meanings of words determines their syntactic activity or passivity. Syntactically active words have strong syntactic connections, or valences. Without the implementation of a strong connection, syntactically active words cannot function in speech. For example, in the phrase nail a picture to the wall supporting verb nail requires mandatory compatibility with word forms that answer the question what? and why? Words with strong connections are called relative. The number of relative words in the vocabulary of the language is large. The distribution of relative words by dependent word forms as part of a sentence is thus determined by two factors: a) the need to realize their strong connections and b) the need to present information in the most complete volume.

Syntactically passive words do not require mandatory extension ( be silent, table etc.). They can be used as part of an offer without distributors, i.e. absolutely (cf.: Everyone was silent; There was a table in the corner of the room). Such words are called absolute. Absolute words used as part of a sentence can be extended to expand information (cf.: In the corner of the room there was a large table with a vase.).

The syntax detects connections with word formation. Syntactically essential derivational features of words are prefixes in verbs; they dictate the prepositional case form to dependent names: in go V house, to drive to villages You go from rooms, at beat To wall etc. Syntactically oriented is transpositive word formation, or so-called syntactic derivation: brave - courage, walk - walking, walking. This type of word formation carries out, for example, a formal translation of a characteristic concept into a noun and gives this concept the opportunity to function like an objective concept; compare: brave hunter And I am amazed at the hunter's courage.

The closest connection between syntax and morphology. Morphology, which studies parts of speech, their categories and forms, essentially serves syntax; all morphological means and categories are intended to function in a sentence. Thus, the categories of gender, number, and case serve to establish connections between words in a phrase and a sentence. The verbal categories of person and voice participate in the constructive organization of the sentence (the person of the verb forms the predicative core of a two-part or one-part sentence; the voice forms active and passive constructions); mood and tense form the category of predicativity as the main, constitutive feature of a sentence. Functional parts of speech (conjunctions, prepositions, particles), interjections and modal words reveal their true existence only in the sphere of syntax.

Thus, the syntactic properties of linguistic units begin to be studied long before the “Syntax” section.

In the section on the question that studies the syntax asked by the author Vadim.ru the best answer is Syntax is a branch of the science of language in which phrases and sentences are studied (including their structure)

Reply from First class[newbie]
Syntax (ancient Greek ???-????? - composition) is a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of phrases and sentences, and the functional interaction of various parts of speech in them. Is an integral part of grammar

Reply from Caucasian[newbie]
Syntax - studies the structure of sentences and phrases.

Reply from electrosleep[newbie]
Syntax (ancient Greek ???-????? - composition) is a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of phrases and sentences and the functional interaction of various parts of speech in them. It is an integral part of grammar. The issues explored within the framework of syntax are closely related to the field of study of morphology.

Reply from Kuekerneagrn kaerekrvkrarer[newbie]
Syntax is a branch of the science of language in which word combinations are studied

Reply from Nika[newbie]
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of sentences and phrases.

Reply from Alina Konstantinovna[newbie]
Syntax (from ancient Greek σύνταξις - “construction, order, composition”) is a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of sentences and phrases.
The syntax addresses the following main issues:
connection of words in phrases and sentences;
consideration of types of syntactic connections;
identifying types of phrases and sentences;
determining the meaning of phrases and sentences;
combining simple sentences into complex ones.

Reply from Nikita Aksenov[newbie]
Syntax studies sentences and phrases

Reply from Anna Vardanyan[newbie]
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the syntactic structure of language, namely phrases, sentences, text, ways of combining phrases into sentences, sentences into text, constructing simple sentences and combining them into complex ones.