Russian philosophy is a phenomenon of world philosophical thought. Its phenomenality lies in the fact that Russian philosophy developed exclusively independently, independently of European and world philosophy, was not influenced by numerous Western philosophical trends - empiricism, rationalism, idealism, etc. At the same time, Russian philosophy is distinguished by depth, comprehensiveness, a rather specific circle researched problems, sometimes incomprehensible to the West.

The characteristic features of Russian philosophy are:

strong exposure to religious influence, especially Orthodoxy and paganism;

a specific form of expression of philosophical thoughts - artistic creativity, literary criticism, journalism, art, "Aesopian language" (which is explained by political lack of freedom and strict censorship);

integrity, the desire of almost all philosophers to deal not with a separate issue, but with the whole complex of topical problems;

the big role of problems of morality and ethics;

concreteness;

widespread among the masses, understandable to the common people.

The foundations of the subject of Russian philosophy were:

human problem;

cosmism (perception of the cosmos as a single integral organism);

problems of morality and ethics;

problems of choosing the historical path of Russia's development - between East and West (a purely specific problem of Russian philosophy);

the problem of power;

the problem of the state;

the problem of social justice (a significant layer of Russian philosophy is "impregnated" with this problem);

the problem of an ideal society;

problem of the future.

The following main stages of Russian philosophy can be distinguished:

the period of the birth of ancient Russian philosophy and early Christian philosophy of Rus';

the philosophy of the period of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the origin, formation and development of the centralized Russian state (Moscow Rus and Russia);

philosophy of the 18th century;

philosophy of the 19th century;

Russian and Soviet philosophy of the XX century.

1. The period of the birth of ancient Russian philosophy and early Christian

philosophy of Rus' refers to the IX - XIII centuries. (corresponds to the era from the emergence of the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus to the time of feudal fragmentation and the Mongol-Tatar conquest).

The main themes of early Russian philosophy were:

moral and ethical values;

explanation of Christianity, attempts to connect it with paganism;

state;

Among the most prominent representatives of the philosophy of this period are:

Hilarion (the main work - "The Word of Law and Grace", which popularizes and analyzes Christianity, its role in the present and future of Rus');

Vladimir Monomakh (the main work is "Instruction", a kind of philosophical moral code, where teachings are given to descendants, problems of good and evil, courage, honesty, stamina, as well as other moral issues are analyzed);

Kliment Smolyatich (the main work is "The Epistle to Presbyter Thomas", the main theme of philosophy is the problems of reason, knowledge);

Philip the Hermit (the main work is Lament, which touches on the problems of the relationship between the soul and the body, carnal (material) and spiritual (ideal).

2. The period of the struggle for liberation from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the formationand development of a centralized Russian state (Moscow Rus) both in history and in philosophy, it falls on the XIII - XVII centuries.

The main themes characteristic of this period of philosophy were:

preservation of Russian spirituality;

Christianity;

struggle for liberation;

the structure of the state;

knowledge.

Notable philosophers of this period include:

Sergius of Radonezh (XIV century - philosopher-theologian, whose main ideals were the strength and power, universality and justice of Christianity; consolidation of the Russian people, overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke;

Philosophy (XVI century) - also dealt with issues of Christian theology, defended the idea of ​​the continuity of Christianity ("Moscow - Third Rome") along the line of Rome - Constantinople - Moscow;

Maximilian the Greek (1475 - 1556) - defended moral values, advocated modesty, asceticism, was the ideologist of the monarchy and royal power, the main goals of which were caring for the people and justice;

Andrei Kurbsky (1528 - 1583) - was the ideologist of oppositional socio-political philosophy, advocated limiting the despotism of royal power, freedom, law, a class-representative monarchy, conducted an absentee polemic with Ivan the Terrible;

Nil Sorsky, Vassian Patrikeyev - advocated the reform of the Church, the eradication of church idleness, splendor, the approach of the Church to the people, were ileologists of the so-called movement of "non-possessors" (they fought against the "Josephites" - supporters of the preservation of the old church foundations);

Avvakum and Nikon - also fought for the renewal of the Church, but in an ideological sense; Nikon - for the reform of rituals and the elevation of the Church to the level of another type of power along with the state, Avvakum - for the preservation of the old rites;

Yuri Krizhanich (XVII century) - opposed scholasticism and its spread in Russian theology; firstly, he dealt with issues of epistemology (cognition); secondly, he put forward rational and experimental (empirical) knowledge; He saw God as the source of all things.

3. Russian philosophyXVIII V. includes two main stages in its development:

philosophy of the era of Peter's reforms

This includes the work of Feofan Prokopovich, V.N. Tatishcheva, A.D. Cantemir. The main focus of their philosophy was socio-political: questions of the structure of the monarchy; imperial power, its divinity and inviolability; the rights of the emperor (to execute, to pardon, to appoint an heir himself and others); war and peace.

materialistic philosophy of the middle and second half of the 18th century.

The main representatives of the materialistic trend were M.V. Lomonosov, A.N. Radishchev.

M.V. Lomonosov (1711 - 1765) in philosophy was a supporter of mechanistic materialism. He laid the materialistic tradition in Russian philosophy. Lomonosov also put forward an atomic ("corpuscular") theory of the structure of matter, according to which all around objects and matter as a whole consist of the smallest particles ("corpuscles", that is, atoms) - material monads.

The attitude of M.V. Lomonosov to God - deistic. On the one hand, he admitted the existence of a Creator God, but, on the other hand, he did not endow Him with supernatural power and capabilities.

In the philosophy of Lomonosov, ethics, morality, morality are also given a great role.

A.N. stood on consistently materialistic positions. Radishchev (1749 - 1802). In addition to substantiating the materialistic principles of being, Radishchev paid great attention to socio-political philosophy. Her credo is the struggle against autocracy, for democracy, legal and spiritual freedom, the triumph of law.

4. Russian philosophyXIX V. included a number of directions: Decembrist; monarchical;

Western and Slavophile; revolutionary-democratic; atheistic; theological; the philosophy of cosmism. These areas are discussed in more detail in question 58.

5. Russian (and Soviet) philosophyXXV. represented mainly by: the philosophy of Marxism-Leninism; philosophy of cosmism; natural science philosophy; philosophy of "Russian abroad".

RUSSIAN PHILOSOPHY- in a broad sense, a set of philosophical ideas, images, concepts that are present in the entire context of national culture, from its inception to the present day. There are narrower interpretations of Russian philosophy: as expressed in purely verbal ways and associated mainly with the literary tradition; as functions of religious thought; as a product professional activity; as a reflection of developed Western philosophy, therefore dependent and formed no earlier than the 18th century; as an original soil phenomenon associated with the activities of the Slavophiles, Vl.Soloviev and their followers; as part of European philosophy, which became an equal partner of Western thought at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, etc. There can be as many definitions of Russian philosophy as there are definitions of philosophy in general. Each of them highlights a certain aspect of the phenomenon called Russian philosophy, therefore it is advisable to consider it from the standpoint of the broadest interpretation, which implicitly includes and implies all the others.

PREHISTORY OF RUSSIAN PHILOSOPHY. The genesis of national culture and the proto-philosophical thought that arose in its bosom goes into the depths of pre-Christian Rus', where it is difficult to establish a starting point. The pagan model of the universe, which became the result of a centuries-old preceding path, adopted by the 10th century. final forms. Her attitudes are as follows: indissolubility with natural cycles, worship of the elements, indistinguishability between the material and spiritual principles, the cult of totems and the veneration of ancestors as ways of social determination. The most ancient universal mythologemes such as "marriage of heaven and earth" and the archetypes of consciousness such as the "world tree" served as a figurative and symbolic interpretation of being. The triple vertical structure of the universe (heaven, earth, underworld), the quaternary horizontal division of space (north, east, west, south), binary oppositions (up-down, male-female, day-night) contained non-verbal models of explaining the world and man, which will subsequently be transformed into verbalized and rationalized concepts. With external primitivism, the elements of philosophical understanding of being, present in the depths of mythological consciousness, play an important role. Sources for the reconstruction of the archaic type of thinking are historical chronicles (records about the Magi in the Tale of Bygone Years), fragments of pagan sanctuaries (Peryn temple in Novgorod), a four-sided and three-tiered Zbruch idol (3D model of the universe), semiotic studies of language (V.V. Ivanov, V.N. Toporov), identified pre-Christian layers of culture (B.A. Uspensky, G.A. Nosova), systematization of heterogeneous ethnographic and archaeological material (B.A. Rybakov).

INITIAL PERIOD. The beginning of the development of Russian philosophy came after the baptism of Rus'. Christianity, instead of the balanced naturalistic pantheism of paganism, introduces a tense confrontation between spirit and matter, a dramatic conflict between good and evil, God and the devil; the idea of ​​an eternal cycle is replaced by the concept of a vector, eschatological, finalistic type. Yesterday's pagan, who lived with a limited tribal consciousness - now a neophyte - is called to personal moral responsibility, his life is connected to the world universe, the fate of his native ethnos becomes part of human history. The main paradigms of the Old Russian worldview are embodied in a variety of verbal (chronicles, collections, lives, teachings, messages), non-verbal (architecture, icon painting, plastic art), mixed (singing art, illuminated manuscripts) sources. The temple was not only a place of prayer, but also a three-dimensional model of the cosmos and society with a special system of painting and organization of space. If the Western medieval genius created the verbal Summa theologiae of St. Thomas Aquinas, then the ancient Russian one created a unique high iconostasis, a non-verbal analogue of such a creation, expressed by aesthetic means. At the same time, the veneration of Sophia the Wisdom of God arises, reflected in the diversity of the creations of culture and domestic sophiology . Gradually, on the basis of the autochthonous heritage and transplanted Byzantine samples, a local type of Orthodox culture and the corresponding philosophical thought are being developed, both of which are part of a common European civilization in its Eastern Christian version. The conceptual basis of philosophical constructions were ideas borrowed from Greek translated literature: the Bible, the exegetical and apocryphal works surrounding it, the works of the Church Fathers, historical chronicles, hagiographic literature. From the “Source of Knowledge” by John of Damascus, the reader learned about the definitions of philosophy: “The mind of beings (knowledge of the existing) ... the mind of the divine and human ... the teaching of death ... assimilation to God ... cunning with cunning and art with art ... love of Wisdom ”(Ruk. RSL, Trinity, f. 304. I., No. 176, fol. 36–37). At the same time, the natural-philosophical treatise “Shestodnev” by John, Exarch of Bulgaria, “The Collection of Tsar Simeon” (known as the “Izbornik of 1073”) and “The Life of Cyril the Philosopher” come to Russia, which contains the first definition of philosophy in the Slavic language: mind, as much as a person can approach Bose, like Detelius to teach a person, in the image and likeness of being who created him ”(Ruk. RSL, MDA, f. 173, No. 19, l. 367 v.). Later, these definitions were supplemented by Maxim Grek, Andrei Kurbsky, Metropolitan Daniel. Of the original writings, it should be noted: Hilarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace", from which Russian historiosophy begins; "The Tale of Bygone Years", containing a complex of aesthetic, natural-philosophical, philosophical and historical ideas; “The Life of Theodosius of the Caves” by the chronicler Nestor as an expression of the ethics of monastics and “Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh” as an example of worldly ethics; "Message of Metropolitan Nicephorus to Vladimir Monomakh" - the first epistemological treatise on the three parts of the soul and five types of sensory knowledge; "The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener" is a monument of aphorism. In Kievan Rus, the foundations of domestic philosophizing were laid, currents of thought were formed, a circle of ideas was defined, the terminology of abstract thinking was developed, the main intentions of development were outlined, typological features of Russian philosophy were formed (panetism, historiosophy, anthropologism, anti-scholasticism, sophianism, dispersal in the context of culture).

MIDDLE AGES. After the Mongol devastation, a single ancient Russian culture and with it philosophical thought are divided into three branches: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. There are links between them; in the 17th–18th centuries they will be united on the territory of a single state, until the end of the 20th century. will not again be divided into independent formations. The emerging typological differences and, at the same time, the consanguinity of the three currents of East Slavic philosophy require careful analysis and their balanced assessment, especially when studying such transitional thinkers as Simeon Polotsky, Feofan Prokopovich, Grigory Skovoroda, Alexander Potebnya. New phenomena arose in the political and spiritual life of Muscovite Rus': Eurasian geopolitical thinking, hesychasm that came from Athos, the pro-imperial doctrine “Moscow is the Third Rome”, book printing as the beginning of a new civilizational stage. From the Balkans come translations of the works of Dionysius the Areopagite, Dioptra by Philip Monotrope; glossaries of an encyclopedic type are formed, like the Azbukovnikov, the Bible is completely translated in Novgorod and published in print by Ivan Fedorov in Ostrog in Ukraine. Iconography, annals, and hagiography reach their peak. Disputes about the ways of the country's development and methods of government are reflected in the controversy between Ivan the Terrible and Andrei Kurbsky. The opponent of the "Russian Nero" flees to Lithuania, paving the way to the West for many subsequent dissidents. In the circle he created, new translations of John of Damascus are being made, the prince himself writes the first works in Russian on logic. The greatest thinker of the High Middle Ages in Russia was Maxim Grek . He brought the art of philological analysis, philosophical dialogue, theological hermeneutics. Together with the non-possessors, he defended the principles of "spiritual work", but the Josephites won, offering a symphony of the state and the Church. Gradually, a conflict arises between the growing imperial power and the ideal of Holy Rus', which in modern times is transformed into a conflict between the authorities and the thinking, upholding moral ideals part of society. The maximalism of power will give rise to the maximalism of ways to resist it, which will activate destructive tendencies that will subsequently blow up the Russian Empire. An extensive range of ideas is contained in the writings of Epiphanius the Wise, Joseph Volotsky, Nil Sorsky, Artemy Troitsky, Ivan Peresvetov, Zinovy ​​Otensky, Vassian Patrikeev and other thinkers of the 15th-16th centuries.

THE AGE OF BAROQUE. The 17th century became a transition from the medieval type of thinking to the new European one. Within the framework of the Baroque style, there is a typological convergence of domestic culture with European culture through Ukrainian, Belarusian, Polish mediation. The mild Europeanization of Russia on the model of Catholic Slavic Poland is replaced under Peter the Great by a hard Westernization of the Protestant type. The first shaker of the foundations was Patriarch Nikon, who wanted to become a "Russian pope." The first split occurred (followed by the Petrine and Soviet ones), which destroyed the integrity of Russian society. The conservatism of the Old Believers helped preserve ancient Russian values ​​up to our time. In the growing Western influence, the leading role was played by the Latinists, led by Simeon of Polotsk. They were opposed by Greekophiles: Epiphanius Slavinetsky, who left a number of translations, incl. from Erasmus of Rotterdam, and Karion Istomin, who beat in verses the coincidence of the names of Princess Sophia and Sophia Wisdom. A lot of literature is translated from Polish, Latin, German: "Aristotelian Economics" by Sebastian Petritsi, "Problemat" by Andrzej Glyaber, "Selenography" by Jan Hevelius, where the ideas of Copernicus were expounded, "Lucidarium", "The Tale of Aristotle" (from Diogenes Laertsky). An important event was the foundation in 1687 of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, where the Likhud brothers for the first time began to teach ethics, metaphysics, and logic in the spirit of late scholasticism. The Croat Yuri Krizhanich was the bearer of European education, the concept of enlightened absolutism, the idea of ​​Slavic unity. In the treatise "Politics" he gave a new, in the spirit of the Latin scheme septem artes liberalis systematization of knowledge, where wisdom (comprehension of God, the world, man), knowledge (understanding of the nature of things), philosophy ("desire for wisdom", which is inherent in every individual, but with philosophers it becomes an all-consuming attraction).

NEW TIME. In modern times, Russian philosophy has experienced the strongest influence of Western philosophy. There was a synchronization of cultural evolution, domestic thought became part of the pan-European intellectual universe. However, this accelerated process was not without cost. Peter's reforms, which turned Russia into an absolutist monarchy of the European type (with Eurasian features), contributed primarily to the development of those forms social life, science, education, secular culture, which corresponded to imperial strategic interests. There was a second split in society and the separation of a small pro-Western noble elite, which broke away from the bulk of the population. The center of power, wealth, influence was St. Petersburg, strikingly different from other cities of the ever-growing empire. The antipode of the built vertical of power is a small man, about whom Russian intellectuals will grieve since the time of Gogol and Dostoevsky. The ideologist of the Petrine reforms was the head of the "scientific team" Feofan Prokopovich, the author of the "Spiritual Regulations", who carried out the reform of the Church in the Protestant spirit and became the first chief prosecutor of the Synod. Having received a good education in Kiev, Lvov, Krakow, Rome, being critical of Thomistic scholasticism, he adopted a number of ideas of Spinoza, Descartes, Leibniz and put forward a plan to change spiritual education in the spirit of "scientific theology", which, according to textbooks translated from German, taught Russian youth up to before the reforms of Metropolitans Platon (Levshin) and Filaret (Drozdov), who created a national theological school. His opponent Stefan Yavorsky wrote the anti-Protestant "Stone of Faith", banned in Russia and published by the Jesuits in Europe in Latin. It affirmed the superiority of Divine laws over human ones and expressed a protest against the forced secularization of society.

For the 18th century characteristic is the opposition and complementarity of various tendencies: scientism and mysticism, Voltairianism and elderism, pro-Westernism and patriotism, Normanism and anti-Normanism. The greatest representative of scientific consciousness was M.V. Lomonosov , combining respect for European knowledge with love for national history and culture. Considered in Soviet times the founder of natural-scientific materialism in Russia, he was a Newtonian-type deist, and his enthusiastic odes about God's greatness were inspired by the lines of the Psalter. St. Tikhon of Zadonsk, seeking to get away from the synodal guardianship, founded a monastery near Voronezh and wrote "A Spiritual Treasure Collected from the World" as an experience of ascetic asceticism. St. Paisius Velichkovsky compiled The Philokalia and became the spiritual father of the eldership, the center of which would be Optina Pustyn, which attracted the best minds of Russia in the 19th century. The expression of extra-church mysticism was Freemasonry, which opposed both the official Church, which seemed to be a bureaucratic, inert institution, and the spreading Voltairianism, a secularized intellectual ideology with a cult of a critically thinking personality. The German professors of the Moscow University founded in 1755 I. Staden and I. Schwartz became the conductors of European Rosicrucianism and Martinism, its adherents were Prince I.V. Lopukhin, the author of the essay “On the Inner Church”, the enlightener N.I. .Bazhenov and many others who believed in the union of "brotherhood and love" for the sake of creating a new global faith and the formation of a higher "hidden man". Mystical and social utopianism was one of the products of the philosophy of the Enlightenment, adopted in Russia from its French ideologists. Another product was revolutionism, which found fertile ground in our Fatherland. A.N. Radishchev was its brightest representative, from whom they molded the idol of the revolutionary movement and materialism. In reality, he appears as a restless, contradictory personality, typical of the courtly mind, captivated by ideas and prone to worldly charms of the brilliant age of baroque and rococo. Having written under the influence of Stern's "Sentimental Journey" his "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", he was exiled to Siberia, where, thinking about the meaning of life, he created a treatise "On Man, on His Mortality and Immortality" of semi-materialistic, semi-idealistic content, ending with a pathetic phrase : "... believe, eternity is not a dream." The physical and spiritual death of the first Russian revolutionary is tragic: having become disillusioned with the ideas of the French Enlightenment, which led to the bloody revolution and the establishment of Napoleon's tyranny, as well as in the work of the imperial commission to create new civil legislation, where he was involved after returning from exile, he commits suicide. Drama Radishchev became a significant warning for future generations of Russian revolutionaries about their own fate, the shock and destruction of the foundations of social life. Radishchev’s opponent is Catherine II, as the ideal of a “philosopher on the throne” once realized in our history, who personified the concept of an enlightened government striving for stability and prosperity of the state. A smart German woman understood what did not fit in the heads of many Russian state and cultural figures by blood - Russia cannot be understood and cannot be controlled without knowledge of traditions, history, a special geopolitical position between the West and the East. It is significant that V.N. Tatishchev And M.M. Shcherbatov create the first multi-volume "Russian Stories", in which modern research methods are combined with the ancient Russian chronicle tradition. For the first time, a professional philosophy is taking shape in an increasingly extensive course, represented by university professors H.N. Popovsky, D.S. Anichkov, S.E. Desnitsky, A.A. and others. Their literary and teaching activities are mainly educational in nature, they actively introduce the achievements of Western thought, which manifests the student nature of the domestic philosophy of the new European type, which gave ripe fruits in the next century. According to the old tradition, talented self-taught people dominated, not constrained by official and corporate boundaries. A typical representative of them was G. Skovoroda, sometimes called “Russian”, sometimes “Ukrainian Socrates”. A wandering poet, musician, teacher, despising the charms of the world, he strives to "philosophize in Christ." In his anthropology and epistemology, the occult knowledge of the heart emerges as a secret way of knowing the world and oneself. In symbolic creations, created under the influence of the Catholic Baroque style, the Ukrainian philosopher, who wrote in Russian, appears as one of the most talented thinkers of the Sophian style, characteristic of the East Slavic region. In general, the 18th century appeared milestone development of Russian philosophy, which prepared its rise in the next century.

FIGHT THE CURRENTS. Early 19th century illuminated the "Alexander Spring" - a short period of liberal projects, the soul of which was M.M. Speransky. Along with supporters of a legitimate, evolutionary transformation of Russia into a country of a bourgeois type, radicals appeared who united in secret societies and longing for a decisive break in the entire economic, political, legal structure. The movement known as the Decembrists is heterogeneous. Its leaders were P.I. Pestel, who dreamed of republican rule and developed the “Russian Truth” (an appeal to the old Russian code of the same name, as well as the terms “veche” and “duma”, were supposed to remind of the pre-monarchist past of Russia), and N.M. Muravyov, who wrote 3 drafts of the Constitution, providing for the liberation of the peasants, the preservation of private property, the introduction of the principle of separation of powers and the federalization of the state. Under the conditions of ideological polarization, protective currents arise. Chapter Russian Academy Sciences A.S. Shishkov publishes “Reasoning about the love of the fatherland”, where he condemns “harmful Western philosophies” and insists on the closure of philosophy departments at universities, which happened during the police reign of Nicholas I. A well-known triad is being developed: “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality ". Even the head of the sentimentalists, H.M. Karamzin, writes a “Note on Ancient and New Russia”, where the need for a monarchical structure was proved. Columbus of Russian Antiquities substantiated this in the multi-volume History of the Russian State. The monarch, as God's anointed, stands above the estates, is the guarantor of the unity and prosperity of society. The thunderstorm of 1812 awakened national consciousness in all areas of creativity, incl. in philosophy. How did the reaction to westernization come about Slavophilism , whose extremes were balanced Westernism , and together they formed a two-faced Janus, facing the past and the future, the original and the foreign. In the history of Slavophilism, one can conditionally distinguish its forerunners (M.P. Pogodin, S.P. Shevyrev), early classics (I.V. Kireevsky, A.S. Khomyakov, K.S. Aksakov), representatives of the official nationality (Yu. F. Samarin, S. S. Uvarov), late apologists (N. Ya. Danilevsky, N. N. Strakhova), neo-Slavophiles of the early 20th century. and their modern successors (V.I. Belova, V.G. Rasputin, A.I. Solzhenitsyn), if the term “Slavophilism” is replaced by the more adequate “Russophilism”. In contrast to German philosophy, based on the Protestant and partly Catholic spirit, the Slavophiles sought to create a philosophy, historiosophy and anthropology in an Orthodox interpretation. Kireevsky in his work "On the Necessity of New Beginnings for Philosophy" anticipated the development of the concepts of integral knowledge and unity. Khomyakov advocated catholicity as a free unity in the bosom of the Orthodox Church, for the communal nature of Russian life, the reconciliation of estates and the great mission of Russia, called upon to replace decrepit Europe in the world process. Samarin denounced Western individualism from the standpoint of religious personalism, the principle of which is a substantial connection with God. The thinker of the religious-soil type is N.V. Gogol, the prophet of the Christian transformation of culture and the sacred ministry of art. The philosopher who provoked the controversy between the Slavophiles and Westernizers was P.Ya. Chaadaev. “A shot in the night” (A.I. Herzen) sounded his “Philosophical Letters”. In contrast to the bureaucratic optimistic ideology, he spoke about the dark past, senseless present and unclear future of the country, which risks hopelessly lagging behind dynamic Europe. He took his Christian philosophy beyond the limits of Orthodoxy, noted the civilizational merit of Catholicism, which forged the spiritual core of Western self-consciousness. The "Basman Philosopher" was declared insane by the highest standards, but in a country where the official characterization is perceived with the opposite sign, he was guaranteed a huge success, especially among Westerners. The ardent admirers of German philosophy, who united in circles of philosophers and Stankevich, in Western-style salons, were fond of Hegelianism, Kantianism, and Schellingism. A radical wing (V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogarev), a moderate center (T.N. Granovsky, P.V. Annenkov), liberals (V.P. Botkin, K. .D.Kavelin, E.Korsh), a wide range of concepts is being developed - from "Russian socialism" to progressive theories of development. Under their influence, a “state school” arose in the person of B.N. Chicherin, S.M. Solovyov, V.O. Klyuchevsky.

POLYPHONY OF THOUGHT. In the 2nd floor. 19th century there are several actively promoting philosophical and social currents, partly passed into the next century; for the first time there is a situation of polyphony of thought, not persecuted by the authorities, which led to its true flowering. Anarchism (M.A. Bakunin, P.A. Kropotkin), populism (rebellious, educational, conspiratorial), positivism (P.L. Lavrov, E.V. De Roberti, V.V. Lesevich), materialism (N .G.Chernyshevsky, N.A.Dobrolyubov, D.I.Pisarev), neo-Kantianism (Alexander I.Vvedensky, G.I.Chelpanov, I.I.Lapshin), Marxism (G.V.Plekhanov, V.I. Lenin, A. A. Bogdanov) in mutual polemics raised the general tone of philosophical thinking, created the variety of ideas necessary for its lively development. Apart from political passions, philosophy developed in theological academies (F.A. Golubinsky, F.F. Sidonsky, V.N. Karpov, S.S. Gogotsky, P.D. Yurkevich). Among the philosophizing writers were F.M. Dostoevsky with his tragic pre-existentialism, L.N. Tolstoy with his symphonies human life and religious rationalism. N.Ya.Danilevsky in the sensational "Russia and Europe" developed the concept of cultural-historical types, anticipating Spengler and Toynbee and influencing future Eurasians. Byzantine apologist KN Leontiev noted the philistine idolatry of the bourgeois West, anticipating the emergence of totalitarian regimes. The "common cause" (patrification) was put forward by Η.Φ. Fedorov, who laid the foundations of Russian cosmism. If the pinnacle of the poetic gift in the literature of the 19th century. A.S. Pushkin appeared, then Vl. Soloviev, the first original Russian philosopher of a pan-European scale, became the pinnacle of the philosophical spirit. In it, domestic thought, having gone through Western training and turned to its own roots, gave a magnificent synthesis of them. He criticizes positivism and the abstract principles of rationalism, which corresponded to the latest trends in Europe and, even more so, to the Slavophil tradition. He puts forward the concept of integral knowledge, dreams of combining national truth with universal truth, mysticism with exact knowledge, Catholicism with Orthodoxy, calling to overcome the temptation of the West (“godless man”) and the temptation of the East (“inhuman deity”). A philosopher of the prophetic type, inspired by the image of Sophia, created fundamental teachings about God-manhood, total unity, and the justification of goodness. Died in 1900, he completes Russian philosophy of the 19th century. and anticipates its ascent, full of tragic twists and turns, in the new century.

FLOWERING AND TRAGEDY. Originally 20th century brought a further upsurge of domestic thought against the backdrop of a general flourishing of culture " silver age”, which became “golden” in terms of the abundance of bright names and creative achievements for Russian philosophy. In the pre-stormy situations of the collapse of the empire, consciousness worked hard, in the existential upheavals of wars and revolutions, at the cost of severe suffering, unique experience was accumulated and comprehended, that enlightenment of truth came, which cannot be found in any universities and academies. At the beginning of the century was created developed infrastructure in the form of religious and philosophical societies, magazines, associations; collections were published, especially excited the Vekhi society; the sophistication of the Symbolists seemed alluring, among which A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov, D. S. Merezhkovsky worked with equal success in aesthetics, philosophies, and literature. Inimitable is the philosophical impressionism of V.V. Rozanov, who switched from the unsuccessful scientific style in the treatise “On Understanding” to the paradoxical-confessional way of expressing an elusive thought. The dominant trend is the evolution characteristic of many from Marxism to idealism and further to Orthodoxy as the spiritual fundamental basis of national self-consciousness. The followers of Vl. Solovyov were the brothers S.N. and E.N. Trubetskoy; the first to develop the doctrine of the Logos; the second, who had an artistic nature, under the influence of Beethoven's music, ancient Russian icon painting, sophiology - the doctrine of the Absolute and summed up in the confessional "The Meaning of Life", written in hungry Moscow in 1918. Personalists, or panpsychists, A.A. Kozlov and L.M. .Lopatin, under the influence of Leibniz's monadology in the interpretation of Teichmüller, created concepts about the subjective perception of the spatio-temporal continuum and the substantiality of a person who cognizes the world. Philosophy of law was substantiated by P.I.Novgorodtsev, who subjected to unmasking criticism in the Book “On the Social Ideal” the harmful influence of Marxism on Russian society. "The religious meaning of philosophy" was defended by I.A. Ilyin, who was considered the ideologist of the white movement; he wrote a number of brilliant works about Russia and Russian culture, in which he called for repentance and "paths of spiritual renewal." L. Shestov's philosophy is pre-existential, through the tragedy of being and the horrors of the era, an individual striving for spiritual freedom, "on the scales of Job" realizing his union with God. S.L. Frank devoted his life to the creation of "living knowledge", which combines the theoretical power of European thought and the "philosophy of life" addressed to man. The doctrine of intuitionism in harmony of the ontological and epistemological aspects of being was thoroughly developed by N.O. Lossky. His son V. N. Lossky became a prominent theologian who considered the mystical theology of the Eastern and Western Churches. The concept of personality, closely related to the problem of the Absolute, understood as coinsidentia oppositorum (coincidence of opposites), and Christian historiosophy were developed by L.P. Karsavin. Christian Neoplatonism, the rejection of the Western ratio, the chanting of the divine Logos are present in the philosophy of VF Ern. Russian thought 1st floor. 20th century so diverse and rich that it is impossible to list all the names, but the three most significant deserve to be referred to. N.A. Berdyaev, a popular in the West apologist for the “philosophy of freedom”, who created a number of fascinating works on personalism, eschatological metaphysics, the meaning of creativity, inspired by the pathos of anthropodicy as a justification of man, in 1946 published the book “Russian Idea” in Paris, where he gave his interpretation a hot topic discussed since the time of Vl. Solovyov. S.N. Bulgakov evolved from Marxist Economism to the Orthodox Church. His spiritual odyssey is instructive in many respects, and his varied work belongs to the apogee of Russian thought in the 20th century. The "non-evening light" was revealed in the gospel truth, the search for the "City of God" led him as a prodigal son to the Father's threshold, his sophiology and philosophy of the name caused a contradictory attitude up to church condemnation, which does not detract from the significance of Fr. Sergius Bulgakov for Russian philosophy. The creative work of o.P. Florensky is varied. Orthodox theodicy is dedicated to his "Pillar and Ground of Truth". In the spirit of Christian Platonism, he strove for the universal coverage of being and the revelation of the spiritual fundamental principle in it. Truth is revealed in divine love, creativity is inspired by Sophia. The doctrine of consubstantiality connects ancient, Christian and modern European philosophy. Subtle linguistic observations, revealing the meaning of the iconostasis, the philosophy of the symbol, the outlined features of "concrete metaphysics" attract the attention of researchers to this day. In the Soviet period, another split occurred, separating the old traditions from communist titanism, which dreamed of a new society, a new person, and even a new nature. Russian philosophy, however, did not disappear, although attempts were made to either destroy it or integrate it into Marxist ideology. It was divided into three areas: implicitly contained within the framework of official science (an example of this is the work of A.F. Losev, artificially squeezed into the framework of aesthetics), dissident (a witty exposure of A.A. Zinoviev) and emigre, which retained the intentions of pre-revolutionary to the West, enriched European thought and saved the reputation of the domestic one. Now, "after the break", there is a complex process of restoring the lost unity, reviving forgotten names and teachings, creating an infrastructure for the future development of Russian philosophy.

HISTORIOGRAPHY. The historiography of Russian thought is vast and varied, it includes a wide range of judgments - from immoderate praise of existing or invented virtues to a complete denial of them. The first special study belongs to archim. Gavriil Voskresensky (1840), who began the countdown from the Old Russian period and noted the influence of the Platonic tradition as a characteristic feature. Collecting "Materials for the History of Philosophy in Russia" Ya.N. Kolubovsky spoke with restraint about its level. E.A.Bobrov was more optimistic. "The fate of Russian philosophy" tried to clarify M. Filippov, who believed that it can be discussed only from the appearance of Westerners and Slavophiles. Many have written about the coincidence of Russian philosophy and literature. S.N. Bulgakov defined Russian philosophy as "understanding of life"; Berdyaev saw great inclinations in her; O. G. Florovsky considered it to be the “philosophy of integral knowledge”, which first arose on domestic soil; I. Ilyin deduced her birth "from suffering"; B.P. Vysheslavtsev symptomatically called his work “The Eternal in Russian Philosophy”; Ern considered it "essentially original"; Frank rejected "nationalistic conceit"; Losev believed that Russian philosophy presents "a super-logical, super-systematic picture of philosophical currents." E.S. Radlov and G.G. Shpet compiled essays on Russian philosophy; the first - with a moderate assessment of its merits, singling out Vl. Solovyov, the second - with a sarcastic one, noting that the development of ideas in it is "impure, pre-scientific, primitive, un-sophianic." Abroad, B.V. Yakovenko wrote about the "unoriginality of Russian philosophy", S. Levitsky created popular essays based on the capital works of V.V. Zenkovsky and N.O. Lossky. Soviet historiography, tendentiously and selectively interpreting Russian philosophy from the standpoint of materialist dialectics, is represented by several multi-volume series and individual publications of limited value; post-Soviet only develops. In Western literature, Russian philosophy is assessed mainly in a Eurocentric way, in Eastern literature - in relation to their models of philosophizing.

Literature:

1. Gabriel(Resurrection),archim. Russian philosophy. Kazan, 1840;

2. Filippov M. The fate of Russian philosophy. St. Petersburg, 1904;

3. Ivanov-Razumnik R.V. History of Russian social thought, vol. 1–2. St. Petersburg, 1907;

4. Radlov E. Essay on the history of Russian philosophy. Pg., 1920;

5. Yakovenko B.V. Essays on Russian Philosophy. Berlin, 1922;

6. Levitsky WITH. A. Essays on the history of Russian philosophical and social thought. Frankfurt am Main, 1968;

7. History of Philosophy in the USSR, vols. 1–5. M., 1968–88;

8. Galaktionov A.A.,Nikandrov L.F. Russian philosophy 9th–20th centuries L., 1989;

9. Shpet G.G. Essay on the development of Russian philosophy. - Op. M., 1989;

10. Zenkovsky V.V. History of Russian Philosophy. L., 1991;

11. Lossky N.O. History of Russian Philosophy. M., 1991;

12. Florovsky G. Ways of Russian theology. Vilnius, 1991;

13. Russian philosophical poetry. Four centuries, comp. A.I. Novikov. SPb., 1992;

14. Vanchugov V.V. Essay on the history of "original-Russian" philosophy. M., 1994;

15. Khoruzhy S.S. After the break. Ways of Russian Philosophy. M., 1994;

16. Zamaleev A.F. Lectures on the history of Russian philosophy. SPb., 1995;

17. Sukhov A.D. Russian Philosophy: Peculiarities, Traditions, Historical Destinies. M., 1995;

18. Russian philosophy. Dictionary, ed. M.A. Maslina. M., 1995;

19. Russian philosophy. Small encyclopedic dictionary. M., 1995;

20. One hundred Russian philosophers. Biographical dictionary, comp. A.D. Sukhov. M., 1995;

21. Philosophers of Russia in the 19th–20th centuries. Biographies, ideas, works. M., 1995;

22. Serbinenko V.V. History of Russian philosophy 11-19 centuries. M., 1996;

23. History of Philosophy: West - Russia - East, ed. N.V. Motroshilova, Prince. 1–4. M., 1996–98;

24. Novikova L.I., Sizemskaya I.N. Russian philosophy of history. M., 1997;

25. Gromov M.H. Structure and typology of Russian medieval philosophy. M., 1997;

26. Masaryk Th. Zur Russischen Geschichts- und Religionsphilosophie, Bd 1–2. Jena, 1913;

27. Fedotov G.P. A Treasury of Russian Spirituality. N.Y., 1948;

28. Russian Philosophy, ed. J.Edie, J.Scanlan, M.Zeldin, G.Kline, v. 1–3, Knoxville, 1976;

29. Berlin I. Russian Thinkers. N.Y., 1978;

30. Walicki A. A History of Russian Thought from the Enlightenment to Marxism. Stanford, 1979;

31. Goerdt W. Russische Philosophie: Zugänge und Durchblicke. Freiburg-Münch., 1984;

32. Copleston F.C. Philosophy in Russia: from Herzen to Lenin and Berdyaev. Notre Dame (Ind.), 1986;

33. Zapata R. La philosophie russe et sovietique. P., 1988;

34. Piovesana G. Storia del pensiero filosofico russo (988–1988). Mil., 1992;

35. Spidlik Th. L'idee russe. Une autre vision de l'homme. Troyes, 1994; A History of Russian Philosophy, ed. V. Kuvakin, v. 1–2. Buffalo, 1994.

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Introduction

2.2 Matter

2.3 Movement

2.4 Space and time

3.2 Development

3.3 Idea of ​​law

3.3.1 Dynamic law

3.3.2 Statistical law

3.4 Singular, special and general

3.5 Part and whole, system

3.7 Essence and phenomenon

3.8 The idea of ​​causality

3.9 Cause, conditions and occasion

3.10 Dialectical and mechanistic determinism

3.11 Necessary and accidental

3.12 Possibility, reality and probability

3.13 Quality, quantity and measure

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Russian philosophical thought is an organic part of world philosophy and culture. Russian philosophy addresses the same problems as Western European philosophy, although the approach to them, the ways of understanding them, were deeply national in nature. The famous historian of Russian philosophical thought V.V. Zenkovsky noted that philosophy found its own ways in Russia - "not alienating the West, even learning from it constantly and diligently, but still living with its inspirations, its problems ...". In XlX century. "Russia has entered the path of independent philosophical thought." Further, he notes that Russian philosophy is not theocentric (although it has a strong religious beginning) and not cosmocentric (although it is not alien to natural philosophical searches), but, first of all, anthropocentric, historiosophical and committed to social problems: “it is most of all occupied with the theme of man, of his fate and ways, about the meaning and goals of history. These same features of Russian philosophical thought were also noted by such researchers of Russian philosophy as A.I. Vvedensky, N.A. Berdyaev and others.

Despite the fact that Russian philosophical thought is represented by a variety of directions, orientations and schools, in solving philosophical problems it was dominated by a creatively active character, a pronounced moral attitude, a constant appeal to the historical destinies of Russia, to the place of the Russian people in the family of European peoples. Therefore, without mastering the domestic spiritual heritage, it is impossible to understand the history and soul of the Russian people, to comprehend the place and role of Russia in world civilization.

Everything that a person knows about the world around him and about himself, he knows in the form of concepts, categories. Categories are the most general, fundamental concepts of a particular science or philosophy. All categories are the essence of concepts, but not all concepts are categories. We think about the world as a whole, about the relation of a person to the world in categories, i.e. extremely general terms.

Each field of knowledge has its own special categories.

The categories are interconnected and, under certain conditions, pass into each other: the accidental becomes necessary, the individual becomes common, quantitative changes entail changes in quality, the effect turns into a cause, etc. This fluid interconnection of categories is a generalized reflection of the interconnection of the phenomena of reality. All categories are historical categories, so there is not and cannot be any one immovable system of categories.

1. General characteristics and main stages in the development of Russian philosophy

Russian philosophical thought is an organic part of world philosophy and culture. Russian philosophy addresses the same problems as Western European philosophy, although the approach to them, the ways of understanding them, were deeply national in nature. The famous historian of Russian philosophical thought V.V. Zenkovsky noted that philosophy found its own ways in Russia - "not alienating the West, even learning from it constantly and diligently, but still living with its inspirations, its problems ...". In the 19th century “Russia has entered the path of independent philosophical thought”1. Further, he notes that Russian philosophy is not theocentric (although it has a strong religious beginning) and not cosmocentric (although not alien to natural philosophical quests), but, above all, anthropocentric, historiosophical and committed to social problems: “it is most of all occupied with the theme of man, of his fate and ways, about the meaning and goals of history. These same features of Russian philosophical thought were also noted by such researchers of Russian philosophy as A.I. Vvedensky, N.A. Berdyaev and others.

Despite the fact that Russian philosophical thought is represented by a variety of directions, orientations and schools, in solving philosophical problems it was dominated by a pronounced moral attitude, a constant appeal to the historical destinies of Russia. Therefore, without mastering the domestic spiritual heritage, it is impossible to understand the history and soul of the Russian people, to comprehend the place and role of Russia in world civilization.

The formation of philosophical thought in Ancient Rus' refers to the X-XII centuries - the time of deep socio-political and cultural changes in the life of the Eastern Slavs, due to education ancient Russian state- Kievan Rus, the influence of Byzantine and Bulgarian cultures, the emergence of Slavic writing and the adoption of Christianity by Russia. These factors created favorable conditions for the emergence of ancient Russian philosophy.

The initial stage in the development of Russian philosophical thought is associated with the appearance of the first literary works containing original philosophical ideas and concepts. The chronicles, "teachings", "words" and other monuments of Russian literature reflected the deep interest of Russian thinkers in historiosophical, anthropological, epistemological and moral problems.

During this period, a peculiar way of philosophizing, characterized by V.V. Zenkovsky as “mystical realism”, was formed due to the type of philosophical tradition perceived together with Christianity. The most significant works of this period include Hilarion's The Tale of Law and Grace, Nestor's The Tale of Bygone Years, Kliment Smolyatich's Epistle to Thomas, Kirill Turovsky's The Word of Wisdom and the Parable of the Human Soul and Body, Teaching" by Vladimir Monomakh, "Message to Vladimir Monomakh" by Metropolitan Nikifor, "Prayer" by Daniil Zatochnik.

The next stage in the development of ancient Russian philosophy covers the XIII-XIV centuries - the time of the most severe trials caused by the Tatar-Mongol invasion. The enormous damage inflicted on Ancient Rus', however, did not interrupt the cultural tradition. The centers of development of Russian thought remained monasteries, in which not only the traditions of the spiritual culture of Rus' were preserved, but the work of translating and commenting on Byzantine philosophical works continued. Among the monuments of Russian thought of this period, the most significant in terms of ideological content are the “Word about the destruction of the Russian land”, “The legend of the city of Kitezh”, “Words” by Serapion of Vladimir, “Kiev-Pechersk patericon”. The themes of spiritual fortitude and moral perfection were the most important for Russian thought of this period.

A new stage in the development of Russian philosophy covers the period from the end of the 14th to the 16th century, characterized by the rise of national self-consciousness, the formation of a Russian centralized state, and the strengthening of ties with the Slavic south and the centers of Byzantine culture.

Hesychasm, a mystical trend in Orthodox theology that arose on Mount Athos in the 13th-14th centuries, rooted in the moral and ascetic teaching of Christian ascetics of the 4th-7th centuries, had a significant impact on Russian philosophical thought of this period. The hesychast tradition in Russian thought is represented by the teachings and activities of Nil Sorsky, Maxim the Greek and their followers.

An important place in the spiritual life of Muscovite Rus was occupied by the controversy between the Josephites and non-possessors. First of all, the ideological struggle of their spiritual leaders - Joseph Volotsky and Nil Sorsky, which embraced such deep moral and political, theological and philosophical problems as social service and the vocation of the church, ways of spiritual and moral transformation of the individual, attitude towards heretics, the problem of royal power and its divine nature.

One of the central places in Russian thought of the XV-XVI centuries. occupied the problem of state, power and law. The view of the Moscow Orthodox kingdom - Holy Rus' - as the successor of Byzantium, called to fulfill a special historical mission, was reflected in the historiosophical concept "Moscow - the third Rome" formulated by the elder Philotheus. The problems of power and law were leading in the controversy between Ivan the Terrible and Andrei Kurbsky; the works of Fyodor Karpov and Ivan Peresvetov, who defended the ideas of strengthening autocratic rule, are devoted to them.

The problems of man, moral perfection, the choice of ways of personal and public salvation were the focus of attention of the outstanding Byzantine humanist-educator Maxim the Greek, whose philosophical work was the greatest achievement of Russian medieval philosophy.

The most prominent representatives of Russian freethinking were Fyodor Kuritsin, Matvey Bashkin, Feodosia Kosoy.

The final stage in the development of Russian medieval philosophy is characterized by contradictory processes of the formation of the foundations of a new world outlook, a clash of traditional spiritual culture with the growing influence of Western European science and enlightenment. The most significant figures of Russian thought of this period - Archpriest Avvakum - the successor and strict zealot of the spiritual traditions of ancient Russian culture, and Simeon Polotsky and Yuri Krizhanich opposing him - conductors of Western European education and culture. The most important topics of their reflections were man, his spiritual essence and moral duty, knowledge and the place in him of philosophy, problems of power and the role of various social strata in the political life of society.

A significant role in the dissemination of philosophical knowledge was played by the largest centers of education and culture - the Kiev-Mohyla and Slavic-Greek-Latin academies, in which a number of philosophical disciplines were taught.

The beginning of the 18th century was the final period in the history of Russian medieval philosophy and the time of the emergence of the prerequisites for its secularization and professionalization, which laid the foundations for a new stage in the development of Russian thought.

When characterizing the peculiarities of the development of philosophy in Russia, it is necessary, first of all, to take into account the conditions for its existence, which, in comparison with Western European ones, were extremely unfavorable. At a time when I. Kant, W. Schelling, G. Hegel and other thinkers freely expounded their philosophical systems in German universities, in Russia the teaching of philosophy was under the strictest state control, which did not allow any philosophical freethinking for purely political reasons. The attitude of state power to philosophy is clearly expressed in famous saying trustee of educational institutions Prince Shirinsky-Shikhmatov "The benefits of philosophy have not been proven, but harm is possible."

Until the second half of the 19th century. philosophical problems were mastered in Russia mainly in philosophical and literary circles outside the official structures of education, which had a double-edged effect.

On the one hand, the formation of Russian philosophy took place in the course of a search for answers to the questions that Russian reality itself posed. Therefore, it is difficult to find a thinker in the history of Russian philosophy who would be engaged in pure theorizing and would not respond to burning problems.

On the other hand, these same conditions led to such an abnormal state for philosophy itself, when, in the perception of philosophical teachings, political attitudes acquired a dominant significance and these teachings themselves were evaluated primarily from the point of view of their “progressiveness” or “reactionary”, “usefulness” or "uselessness" for solving social problems.

Therefore, those teachings that, although they did not differ in philosophical depth, but answered the topic of the day, were widely known. Others, who later made up the classics of Russian philosophy, such as the teachings of K. Leontiev, N. Danilevsky, Vl. Solovyov, N. Fedorova and others, did not find a response from contemporaries and were known only to a narrow circle of people.

When characterizing the features of Russian philosophy, one must also take into account the cultural and historical background on which it was formed. In Russia, in the course of its history, there has been, as it were, an interweaving of two different types of cultures and, accordingly, types of philosophizing: rationalistic, Western European and Eastern, Byzantine, with its intuitive worldview and lively contemplation, included in Russian self-consciousness through Orthodoxy. This combination of two different types of thinking runs through the entire history of Russian philosophy.

The existence at the crossroads of different cultures largely determined the form of philosophizing and the problems of Russian philosophy. As for the form of philosophizing, its specificity was successfully defined by A.F. Losev, who showed that Russian philosophy, in contrast to Western European philosophy, is alien to the desire for an abstract, purely rational systematics of ideas. In a significant part, it "represents a purely internal, intuitive, purely mystical knowledge of being."

From the content side, Russian philosophy also has its own characteristics. It presents to one degree or another all the main areas of philosophical thinking: ontology, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, philosophy of history, etc. However, there are also leading themes for her. One of them, which determined the very specifics of Russian philosophy, was the theme of Russia, the comprehension of the meaning of its existence in history. The formation of Russian philosophical thought began with this topic, and it remained relevant throughout its development.

Another leading theme was the theme of man, his fate and the meaning of life. Increased attention to the problem of man determined the moral and practical orientation of Russian philosophy. A feature of Russian philosophical thinking was not just a deep interest in moral issues, but the dominance of a moral attitude in the analysis of many other problems.

The original Russian philosophy in its innovative searches was closely connected with the religious worldview, behind which stood centuries of spiritual experience in Russia. And not just with the religious, but with the Orthodox worldview. Speaking about this, V. V. Zenkovsky notes that “Russian thought has always (and forever) remained connected with its religious element, with its religious soil.

At present, the invaluable spiritual experience obtained by Russian philosophy acts as a necessary basis for spiritual rebirth.

Philosophy of Russia in the Age of Enlightenment.

The 18th century in the spiritual life of Russia became a century of secularization, i.e. various spheres of society left the influence of the church and acquired a secular character. The beginning of the process of creating a new, secular culture was laid by the Petrine reforms, which are associated with the intense influence of Western ideology on Russian culture. Europeanization was not a simple transition from a significantly weakened Byzantine influence to an increasing Western influence. After the initial mechanical borrowing of Western European values, the triumph of national spirituality began.

An important phenomenon during this period was the creation of a circle, called the "Scientific squad of Peter I." Its prominent participants were F. Prokopovich (1681-1736), V.N. Tatishchev (1686-1750), A.D. Cantemir (1708-1744). A major representative of this squad was V.N. Tatishchev, who laid the foundations of secular philosophy as an independent field of human creative activity. In philosophy and specific sciences, he saw an important means of renewing Russian society. Philosophy, according to Tatishchev, is the most important science, concentrating in itself the highest, cumulative knowledge, for only it is capable of answering the most complex questions of being. “True philosophy is not sinful,” but useful and necessary.

The thinker proposed his own classification of sciences on the basis of their social significance. He singled out the "necessary", "useful", "dandy" (or "amusing"), "curious" (or "vain") and "harmful" sciences. “Speech” (language), economics, medicine, jurisprudence, logic and theology were assigned to the category of necessary sciences; useful - grammar and eloquence, foreign languages, physics, mathematics, botany, anatomy, history and geography. The dandy sciences, in his opinion, have only an entertaining value, for example, poetry, music, dance, etc. Astrology, alchemy, palmistry belong to the curious sciences, and necromancy and witchcraft belong to the harmful sciences. In fact, Tatishchev attributed all knowledge to the sciences.

Destroying the theological explanation of history, he placed the level of knowledge and the degree of dissemination of enlightenment as the basis for social development. Faith in the power of reason and historicism united him with Western enlighteners. Considering that Russia was facing the task of radically reforming educational institutions and creating new ones, Tatishchev proposed his rather developed program for the development of education.

He solved the problem of the relationship between the soul and the body from a dualistic position, declaring the bodily organization of a person as a field of philosophy, and relating the soul to the competence of religion. At the same time, he was characterized by religious skepticism and criticism of the church. He seeks to secularize public life, free it from church control, while arguing that the church must be subject to the control of the state.

Being a rationalist and a supporter of natural law, Tatishchev associated the development of society with such natural factors as agriculture, trade and education.

In an effort to substantiate the "new intelligentsia", he proceeded from the doctrine of "natural law", recognizing the inviolable autonomy of the individual. For the first time in Russian literature, he develops the idea of ​​utilitarianism, based on rational egoism.

The intensive development of natural science in Russia contributed to the formation of secular philosophy. The first Russian thinker of world importance was M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765), who, according to A.S. Pushkin, "our first university", "the greatest mind of modern times". As a deist, Lomonosov laid the foundation for the materialist tradition in Russian philosophy. His recognition of God as the architect of the world, not interfering in the course of world events, led to the recognition of the theory of dual truth. According to the latter, a representative of natural science and a teacher of theology should not interfere in each other's affairs.

Being engaged in natural sciences, Lomonosov attached paramount importance to experience. He believed that the law of experience must be supplemented by "philosophical knowledge." In an effort to create a philosophy of nature, he did not reduce the knowledge of nature to a purely empirical systematization, but strove for philosophical generalizations.

Giving the definition of matter, the Russian thinker wrote: "Matter is what the body consists of and what its essence depends on." At the same time, he avoided identifying matter and substance, reducing matter to corporality. In his opinion, no absolute space exists: the world is completely filled and is a combination of two kinds of matter - "own" and "foreign". Matter is eternal and indestructible and always remains within the limits of existence.

According to Lomonosov, everything that happens in the world is connected with the processes of matter movement. There are three forms of motion: 1) translational, 2) rotational, 3) oscillatory, which pass from one body to another. Movement was understood by him from a mechanistic position: "Bodies are set in motion by pushing alone." Thus, the very source of movement was left in the shadows.

Following Lomonosov, materialistic ideas in philosophy were developed by A.N. Radishchev (1749-1802), who wrote the philosophical work "On Man, on His Mortality and Immortality". Being on the positions of deism, he considered God "the first cause of all things", which is outside the spatio-temporal relations of nature, since "the concept and information about the necessity of the existence of God can have one God." The material world, once set in motion by the impetus of the creator, continues to move and develop independently.

Defending materialistic positions, Radishchev wrote that "the existence of things, regardless of the power of knowledge about them, exists on its own." Man, in the process of interacting with nature, cognizes it through experience, which is "the basis of all natural knowledge." Sensual experience, according to Radishchev, should be supplemented by rational experience, since "the power of knowledge is one and indivisible."

Radishchev paid the main attention to socio-philosophical problems, creating a unique doctrine of man. Man, in his opinion, is a product of nature, it is “the most perfect of creatures”, living in unity with people and the cosmos; he possesses reason and speech, as well as the capacity for social life. An important role in the formation of man and his subsequent activity was played by the human hand as an instrument of activity.

The thinker believed that the human soul is immortal and is reborn after the death of the body in other bodies, which ensures the infinite perfection of the human race. The purpose of life is to strive for perfect bliss.

Radishchev repeatedly noted the effect of natural conditions on the development of "human intelligence", on the customs and mores of people. Their needs were also associated with the location of people, the satisfaction of which is carried out through various inventions. At the same time, personal interest was considered the main motive for human aspirations.

Thus, the influence of Western European ideology contributed to the development of philosophy in Russia, although it was not unambiguous. By joining the philosophical culture of the West, Russian thinkers seemed to shorten the path of their own ascent to the heights of philosophical thinking, on the one hand, and on the other hand, their own creativity was constrained by the influence of Western culture.

2. Main categories of philosophy

Categories are forms of reflection in thought of the universal laws of the objective world.

2.1 Genesis

In all philosophical systems without exception, the reasoning of thinkers of any level of intellectual giftedness began with an analysis of what surrounds a person, what is at the center of his contemplation and thought, what lies at the foundation of the universe, what is the universe, the Cosmos, what things consist of and what they represent. phenomena flowing in their infinite variety - i.e. what constitutes the phenomenon of Being as a whole. And much later, a person began to think about himself, about his spiritual world.

What is existence?

By being, in the broadest sense of the word, we mean the extremely general concept of existence, of beings in general. Being and reality as all-encompassing concepts are synonymous. Being is all that is. These are material things, these are all processes (physical, chemical, geological, biological, social, mental, spiritual), these are their properties, connections and relationships. The fruits of the most violent fantasy, fairy tales, myths, even the delirium of a sick imagination - all this also exists as a kind of spiritual reality, as a part of being. The antithesis of being is nothing.

Even on the surface, existence is not static. All concrete forms of the existence of matter, for example, the strongest crystals, giant star clusters, certain plants, animals and people, seem to float out of non-existence (they didn’t exist just like that once) and become a cash being. The being of things, no matter how much time it lasts, comes to an end and "floats away" into non-being as a given qualitative certainty. The transition into non-existence is conceived as the destruction of a given type of being and its transformation into a different form of being. In the same way, the emerging form of being is the result of the transition of one form of being into another: it is senseless to try to imagine the self-creation of everything from nothing. So non-existence is conceived as relative concept, but in the absolute sense there is no nonexistence.

The book of Genesis is the first book of Holy Scripture (the first book of Moses). In a burning, but not burning bush, an unburned bush, the Lord, who appeared on Mount Horeb to Moses, announced to him about His name in this way: “I am who I am (IEHOVAH). And he said, Thus say to the children of Israel: Jehovah has sent me to you” (Ex. 3:14).

In existentialism, for human being, the spiritual and material are merged into a single whole: this is spiritualized being. The main thing in this being is the consciousness of temporality (existence is "being towards death"), the constant fear of the last possibility - the possibility of not being, and hence the consciousness of the pricelessness of one's personality.

2.2 Matter

philosophy being matter determinism

The first thing that strikes a person's imagination when he observes the world, is an amazing variety of objects, processes, properties and relationships. We are surrounded by forests, mountains, rivers, seas. We see stars and planets, admire the beauty of the northern lights, the flight of comets. The diversity of the world is incalculable. You need to have great power of thought and a rich imagination in order to see their commonality and unity behind the diversity of things and phenomena of the world.

All objects and processes of the external world have such a common feature: they exist outside and independently of consciousness, being reflected directly or indirectly in our sensations. In other words, they are objective. First of all, on this basis, philosophy unites and generalizes them in one concept of matter. When it is said that matter is given to us in sensations, it means not only direct perception of objects, but also indirect. We cannot see, touch, for example, individual atoms. But we feel the action of bodies consisting of atoms.

Matter cannot be seen, touched, tasted. What they see, touch, is a certain kind of matter. Matter is not one of the things that exist alongside others. All existing concrete material formations are matter in its various forms, types, properties and relationships. There is no "faceless" matter. Matter is not the real possibility of all forms, but their actual being. The only property relatively different from matter is only consciousness, spirit.

Every somewhat consistent philosophical thinking can deduce the unity of the world either from matter or from a spiritual principle. In the first case, we are dealing with materialistic, and in the second - with idealistic monism (from the Greek one, only). There are philosophical teachings that stand on the positions of dualism (from lat. dual).

Some philosophers see the unity of objects and processes in their reality, in the fact that they exist. This is indeed the common thing that unites everything in the world. But the principle of the material unity of the world does not mean the empirical similarity or identity of specific existing systems, elements and specific properties and patterns, but the generality of matter as a substance, as a carrier of diverse properties and relationships.

The infinite universe, both in the great and in the small, both in the material and in the spiritual, relentlessly obeys the universal laws that bind everything in the world into a single whole. Materialistic monism rejects the views that distinguish consciousness, mind into a special substance that is opposed to nature and society. Consciousness is both the cognition of reality and its integral part. Consciousness does not belong to some other world, but to the material world, although it opposes it as spirituality. It is not a supernatural unique, but a natural property of highly organized matter.

Matter in the physical sense has a diverse, discontinuous structure. It consists of parts of various sizes, qualitative certainty: elementary particles, atoms, molecules, radicals, ions, complexes, macromolecules, colloidal particles, planets, stars and their systems, galaxies.

From "discontinuous" forms of matter, "continuous" forms are inseparable. These are different types of fields - gravitational, electromagnetic, nuclear. They bind particles of matter, allow them to interact and thus exist.

The world and everything in the world is not chaos, but a regularly organized system, a hierarchy of systems. The structure of matter means an internally dissected integrity, a regular order of connection of elements in the composition of the whole. The existence and movement of matter is impossible outside of its structural organization. The concept of structure is applicable not only to different levels of matter, but also to matter as a whole. The stability of the main structural forms of matter is due to the existence of its single structural organization.

One of the attributes of matter is its indestructibility, which manifests itself in the totality of specific laws of maintaining the stability of matter in the process of its change.

2.3 Movement

Movement is the mode of being. To be means to be in motion, change. There are no immutable things, properties and relations in the world. The world is composed and decomposed, it is never something finished. Movement is uncreatable and indestructible. It is not brought in from outside. The movement of beings is self-movement in the sense that the tendency, the impulse to change state, is inherent in reality itself: it is the cause of itself. Since the movement is uncreated and indestructible, it is absolute, immutable and universal, manifesting itself in the form of specific forms of movement.

If the absoluteness of motion is due to its universality, then relativity is due to the specific form of its manifestation. Forms and types of movement are diverse. They correspond to the levels of the structural organization of beings. Each form of movement has a certain carrier - substance.

The movement of any thing is carried out only in relation to some other thing. The concept of motion of an individual body is pure nonsense. To study the motion of an object, we need to find a frame of reference - another object in relation to which we can consider the motion of interest to us.

In the endless stream of the never-ending movement of beings, there are always moments of stability, manifested primarily in the preservation of the state of movement, as well as in the form of equilibrium of phenomena and relative rest. No matter how the object changes, while it exists, it retains its certainty. To find absolute peace means to cease to exist. Everything relatively at rest is inevitably involved in some kind of movement and, ultimately, in the infinite forms of its manifestation in the universe. Peace always has only a visible and relative character.

2.4 Space and time

Space is a form of coordination of coexisting objects, states of matter. It lies in the fact that the objects are located outside each other (nearby, sideways, below, above, inside, behind, in front, etc.) and are in certain quantitative relationships. The order of coexistence of these objects and their states forms the structure of space.

Phenomena are characterized by the duration of existence, the sequence of stages of development. Processes are performed either simultaneously, or one earlier or later than the other; such, for example, are the relationships between day and night, winter and spring, summer and autumn. All this means that bodies exist and move in time. Time is a form of coordination of changing objects and their states. It lies in the fact that each state is a sequential link in the process and is in certain quantitative relations with other states. The order of change of these objects and states forms the structure of time.

Space and time are universal forms of existence, coordination of objects. The universality of these forms of being lies in the fact that they are the forms of being of all objects and processes that were, are and will be in the infinite world. Not only the events of the external world, but also all feelings, thoughts occur in space and time. Everything in the world extends and lasts. Space and time have their own characteristics. Space has three dimensions: length, width and height, while time has only one - the direction from the past through the present to the future.

Space and time exist objectively, their existence is independent of consciousness. Their properties and regularities are also objective, they are not always a product of the subjective thought of a person.

3. Interrelation of categories

The categories are interconnected and, under certain conditions, pass into each other: the accidental becomes necessary, the individual becomes common, quantitative changes entail changes in quality, the effect turns into a cause, etc. This fluid interconnection of categories is a generalized reflection of the interconnection of the phenomena of reality. All categories are historical categories, so there is not and cannot be any one immovable system of categories given once and for all. In connection with the development of thinking and science, new categories arise (for example, information), and the old ones are filled with new content. Any category in the real process of human cognition, in science, exists only in the system of categories and through it.

3.1 Universal communication and interaction

Nothing in the world stands apart. Any object is a link in an endless chain. And this universal chain is nowhere broken: it unites all the objects and processes of the world into a single whole, it has a universal character. In an endless web of connections - the life of the world, its history.

Communication is the dependence of one phenomenon on another in some respect. The main forms of communication include: spatial, temporal, genetic, causal, essential and non-essential, necessary and random, regular, direct and indirect, internal and external, dynamic and static, direct and reverse, etc. Communication is not a subject , not a substance, it does not exist by itself, outside of what is connected.

The phenomena of the world are not only mutually dependent, they interact: one object acts in a certain way on another and experiences its effect on itself. When considering interacting objects, it must be borne in mind that one of the sides of the interaction can be the leading, determining, and the other - the derivative, determined.

The study of various forms of connections and interaction is the primary task of knowledge. Ignoring the principle of universal connection and interaction is detrimental to practical affairs. Thus, deforestation leads to a decrease in the number of birds, and this is accompanied by an increase in the number of agricultural pests. The destruction of forests is accompanied by the shallowing of rivers, soil erosion, and thus a decrease in yields.

3.2 Development

There is nothing final in the Universe. Everything is on the way to something else. Development is a certain directed, irreversible change of an object: either simply from old to new, or from simple to complex, from a lower level to an ever higher one.

Development is irreversible: everything goes through the same state only once. It is impossible, say, to move an organism from old age to youth, from death to birth. Development is a double process: the old is destroyed in it and the new arises in its place, which asserts itself in life not through the unhindered development of its potentialities, but in a severe struggle with the old. Between the new and the old there is a similarity, a common (otherwise we would have only a multitude of unrelated states), and a difference (without a transition to something else there is no development), and coexistence, and struggle, and mutual negation, and mutual transition. The new arises in the bosom of the old, then reaching a level incompatible with the old, and the latter is denied.

Along with the processes of ascending development, there is also degradation, the disintegration of systems - the transition from higher to lower, from more perfect to less perfect, lowering the level of organization of the system. For example, the degradation of biological species that are dying out due to the inability to adapt to new conditions. When the system as a whole degrades, this does not mean that all its elements undergo disintegration. Regression is a contradictory process: the whole decays, while individual elements can progress. Further, the system as a whole can progress, and some of its elements can degrade, for example, the progressive development of biological forms as a whole is accompanied by the degradation of individual species.

3 .3 Idea of ​​law

The knowledge of the world convinces us that the Universe has its own "code of laws", everything is put into their framework. The law always expresses the connection between objects, elements within the object, between the properties of objects and within the framework of this object. But not every connection is a law: a connection can be necessary and accidental. Law is the necessary, stable, recurring, essential connections and relationships of things. It indicates a certain order, sequence, trend in the development of phenomena.

It is necessary to distinguish between the laws of the structure, functioning and development of the system. Laws can be less general, operating in a limited area (the law of natural selection), and more general (the law of conservation of energy). Some laws express a strict quantitative relationship between phenomena and are fixed in science by mathematical formulas. Others defy mathematical description, such as the law of natural selection. But both those and other laws express the objective, necessary connection of phenomena.

3 .3.1 Dynamic law

A dynamic law is a form of causality in which the initial state of a system uniquely determines its subsequent state. Dynamic laws come in varying degrees of complexity. They are applicable to all phenomena in general and to each of them separately, of course, from among those that are subject to this law; so, every stone thrown up, obeying the law of gravity, falls down.

3 .3.2 Statistical law

Science, being unable to predict the behavior of the individual components of some systems, accurately predicts the behavior of the whole. Randomness in the behavior of the individual is subject to the laws of the life of the whole. Statistical regularity characterizes the mass of phenomena as a whole, and not every part of this whole. If an accident must occur on every million kilometers of the journey, then this does not apply to everyone who has traveled this path: an accident can “overtake” a person even at the first kilometer.

3 .4 Singular, special and general

3.4.1 Single

The individual is an object in the totality of its inherent properties that distinguish it from all other objects and make up its individual, qualitative and quantitative definiteness.

The idea of ​​the world only as an infinite variety of individuals is one-sided, and therefore incorrect. Infinite diversity is only one side of being. Its other side lies in the generality of things, their properties and relations.

3 .4.2 Singular and general - special

The common is one in many ways. Unity can act in the form of similarity or commonality of properties, relations of objects united in a certain class, set. General properties and relations of things are known on the basis of generalization in the form of concepts and are denoted by common names: “man”, “plant”, “law”, “cause”, etc.

In each individual is the general as its essence. For example, the statement that a given act is a feat means recognizing a certain general quality behind a given single action. The general is, as it were, the "soul", the essence of the individual, the law of its life and development.

Objects may have varying degrees of generality. The individual and the general exist in unity. Their concrete unity is special. At the same time, the general can act in a twofold relation: in relation to the individual, it acts as a general, and in relation to a greater degree of generality, as a special one. For example, the concept of "Russian" acts as a singular in relation to the concept of "Slav"; the latter acts as a general in relation to the concept of "Russian" and as special to the concept of "man". So, the individual, the special and the general are correlative categories expressing the mutual transitions of reflected objects and processes.

The action of a general regularity is expressed in the individual and through the individual, and any new regularity initially appears in reality in the form of a single exception from general rule. The potential general in the form of an individual, being at first random, gradually increases in number and gains the force of law, acquiring the status and power of the general. At the same time, such single “exceptions” that correspond to the development trend arising from the entire set of conditions turn into the general. The general does not exist before the individual and outside it; the singular cannot always be generalized. Their unity is special. This category overcomes the one-sidedness, the abstractness of both and takes them in a concrete unity.

The correct consideration of the individual, particular and general plays a huge cognitive and practical role. Science deals with generalizations and operates with general concepts, which makes it possible to establish laws and thereby equip practice with foresight. This is the strength of science, but this is also its weakness. The individual and the particular are richer than the general. Only through a rigorous analysis and account of a single, special through observation, experiment, a deepening, concretization of the laws of science is achieved. The general is revealed in the concept only through the reflection of the individual and the particular. Thanks to this, the scientific concept embodies the richness of the special and individual.

3 .5 Part and whole, system

A system is an integral set of elements in which all elements are so closely connected with each other that they act in relation to the surrounding conditions and other systems of the same level as a single whole. An element is the smallest unit in a given whole that performs a specific function in it. Systems can be simple or complex. A complex system is one whose elements are themselves regarded as systems.

Any system is something whole, which is a unity of parts. The categories of the whole and the part are correlative categories. Whatever arbitrarily small particle of a being we take (for example, an atom), it is something whole and at the same time a part of another whole (for example, a molecule). This other whole is, in turn, a part of some larger whole (for example, the organism of an animal). The latter is a part of an even larger whole (for example, the planet Earth), and so on. Any whole, arbitrarily large, accessible to our thought, is ultimately only a part of an infinitely large whole. Thus, one can imagine all bodies in nature as parts of one whole - the Universe.

According to the nature of the connection of parts, various integrity are divided into three main types:

1. unorganized (or summative) integrity. For example, a simple accumulation of objects, similar to a herd of animals, a conglomerate, i.e. mechanical connection of something heterogeneous (rock of pebbles, sand, gravel, boulders, etc.). In an unorganized whole, the connection of parts is mechanical. The properties of such a whole coincide with the sum of the properties of its constituent parts. At the same time, when objects enter the composition of an unorganized whole or leave it, they do not undergo qualitative changes.

2. organized integrity. For example, atom, molecule, crystal, solar system, Galaxy. An organized whole has a different level of order, depending on the characteristics of its constituent parts and on the nature of the relationship between them. In an organized whole, its constituent elements are in a relatively stable and regular relationship.

The properties of an organized whole cannot be reduced to the mechanical sum of the properties of its parts: the rivers "were lost in the sea, although they are in it, and although it would not exist without them." Zero in itself is nothing, but in the composition of an integer its role is significant. Water has the property of extinguishing fire, and its constituent parts separately have completely different properties: hydrogen itself burns, and oxygen supports combustion.

3. organic integrity. For example, organism, species, society. This is the highest type of organized integrity, system. Its characteristic features are self-development and self-reproduction of parts. Parts of an organic whole outside the whole not only lose a number of their significant properties, but generally cannot exist in a given qualitative certainty: no matter how modest the place of this or that person on Earth and no matter how little what he does, he still carries out the work necessary for the whole.

Content is what constitutes the essence of an object, the unity of all its constituent elements, its properties, internal processes, connections, contradictions and tendencies. The content includes not only the components, this or that object, elements, but also the way of their connections, i.e. structure. In this case, different structures can be formed from the same elements. By the way the elements in a given object are connected, we recognize its structure, which gives relative stability and qualitative certainty to the object.

Form and content are one: there is not and cannot be a formless content and a form devoid of content. Their unity is revealed in the fact that a certain content is "dressed" in a certain form. The leading side, as a rule, is the content: the form of organization depends on what is being organized. Change usually starts with content. In the course of the development of content, a period is inevitable when the old form ceases to correspond to the changed content and begins to slow down its further development. A conflict arises between form and content, which is resolved by breaking the outdated form and the emergence of a form corresponding to the new content.

The unity of form and content presupposes their relative independence and the active role of form in relation to content. The relative independence of the form is expressed, for example, in the fact that it may somewhat lag behind the content in development. The relative independence of form and content is also revealed in the fact that the same content can take on different forms.

3.7 Essence and phenomenon

Essence is the main, basic, defining in the subject, these are the essential properties, connections, contradictions and trends in the development of the object. The language formed the word "essence" from the existing, and the real meaning of the essence is more simply expressed by the concept of "essential", which means important, main, defining, necessary, natural. Any law of the world around us expresses an essential connection between phenomena.

A phenomenon is an external manifestation of an essence, a form of its manifestation. Unlike the essence, which is hidden from the gaze of man, the phenomenon lies on the surface of things. But a phenomenon cannot exist without that which appears in it, i.e. without his essence.

The phenomenon is richer, more colorful than the essence because it is individualized and occurs in a unique totality. external conditions. In the phenomenon, the essential manifests itself together with the inessential, accidental in relation to the essence. But in a holistic phenomenon there are no accidents - it is a system (a work of art). A phenomenon may correspond to its essence or not correspond to it, the degree of both may be different. Essence is found both in the mass of phenomena and in a single essential phenomenon.

3 .8 The idea of ​​causality

When one phenomenon under certain conditions modifies or gives rise to another phenomenon, the first acts as a cause, the second as a consequence. Causality is a connection that turns a possibility into reality, reflecting the patterns of development. The chain of cause-and-effect relationships is objectively necessary and universal. It has neither beginning nor end, it is not interrupted either in space or in time.

Any effect is caused by the interaction of at least two bodies. Therefore, the phenomenon-interaction acts as the true cause of the phenomenon-effect. Only in the simplest particular and limiting case can a causal relationship be represented as a one-sided, one-way action. For example, the reason for the fall of a stone to the Earth is their mutual attraction, which obeys the law of universal gravitation, and the fall of a stone to the Earth itself is the result of their gravitational interaction. But since the mass of the stone is infinitely less than the mass of the Earth, the effect of the stone on the Earth can be neglected. And as a result, an idea arises of a one-sided action, when one body (Earth) acts as an active side, and the other (stone) as a passive one. However, in more complex cases one cannot abstract from the reverse action of the carrier of the action on other bodies interacting with it. So, in the chemical interaction of two substances, it is impossible to distinguish the active and passive sides. This is even more true when elementary particles transform into each other.

The temporal relationship between cause and effect lies in the fact that there is a time interval in the form of a delay between the onset of the cause (for example, the interaction of two systems) and the onset of the corresponding effect. Cause and effect coexist for a while, and then the cause fades away, and the effect eventually turns into new reason. And so on ad infinitum.

The interaction of cause and effect is called the feedback principle, which operates in all self-organizing systems where information is perceived, stored, processed and used, such as, for example, in an organism, electronic device, society. Without feedback, stability, control and progressive development of the system are unthinkable.

The cause acts as active and primary in relation to the effect.

Distinguish between a full cause and a specific cause, main and non-main. The complete cause is the totality of all events, in the presence of which the effect is born. Establishing a complete cause is possible only in rather simple events in which a relatively small number of elements participate. Usually, research is aimed at uncovering the specific causes of an event. A specific cause is a combination of a number of circumstances, the interaction of which causes an effect. At the same time, specific causes cause an effect in the presence of many other circumstances that already existed in a given situation before the onset of the effect. These circumstances constitute the conditions for the action of the cause. A specific cause is defined as the most significant elements of a complete cause in a given situation, and its remaining elements act as conditions for the action of a specific cause. main reason- this is the one that plays a decisive role from the totality of causes.

The reasons are internal and external. An internal cause operates within a given system, while an external cause characterizes the interaction of one system with another.

The reasons can be objective and subjective. Objective causes are carried out in addition to the will and consciousness of people. Subjective reasons are contained in the purposeful actions of people, in their determination, organization, experience, knowledge.

It is necessary to distinguish between immediate causes, i.e. those that directly cause and determine the given action, and indirect causes that cause and determine the action through a number of intermediate links.

3.9 Cause, conditions and occasion

In order for a cause to produce an effect, certain conditions are required. Conditions are phenomena that are necessary for the occurrence of a given event, but do not in themselves cause it. The mode of operation of a given cause and the nature of the effect depend on the nature of the conditions. By changing the conditions, one can change both the mode of action of the cause and the nature of the effect.

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Briefly and clearly about philosophy: the main and basic about philosophy and philosophers
Features of the development of Russian philosophy

The creative searches of the Russian people were embodied in Russian philosophy, peculiar features of the national character and thinking were manifested. The philosophical ideas of Russian thinkers (N. Berdyaev, Vl. Solovyov, F. Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, M. Bakunin, and others) are an independent philosophical trend with a unique national identity.

With the adoption of Christianity in Rus' in terms of worldview, Byzantine Christian theology occupied a monopoly position. The development of the ancient heritage was carried out indirectly, refracted through the prism of this dogma. The religious struggle between Orthodoxy and Catholicism, which lasted for several centuries, also reduced philosophical contacts with Western Europe to a minimum.

The processes of liberation from religious control of public life, begun by Peter I, led to the fact that Russian philosophical thought began to develop in close connection with the philosophy of Western European peoples. Throughout the 18th century, Russian thought was forced to make up for what was “lost” in the shortest possible time by mastering the scientific and philosophical results achieved by that time in the countries of Europe. Therefore, Russian philosophical thought developed under the predominant influence of French materialism of the 18th century, classical German philosophy and German romantic philosophers of the first half of the 19th century, primarily F. Schelling.

The protracted nature of serfdom in Russia and autocracy also contributed to the originality of the direction and style of philosophizing. We are talking about the ideology of the noble radical revolutionaries, about radical peasant democracy, including populism, Slavophilism - pochvenism, Westernism and Tolstoyism. The same circumstances led to a significant role in the history of Russian philosophy of Orthodox Christianity, to the development of a national religious and philosophical tradition. The specifics of the social development of Russia also gave rise to a special layer of people who were not found anywhere else, namely, the intelligentsia.

Ideas of Western European Philosophy in a Russian Supplement

The liberation of Russia from religious control, begun by Peter I, led to the fact that Russian philosophical thought began to develop in close connection with the philosophy of the Western European peoples. Initially, this connection was more or less one-sided, since, naturally, it assumed the mastery of the scientific and philosophical results achieved by that time in the countries of Europe.

Russian philosophers used the mental material that arose on a more developed socio-cultural basis, included it, while processing it accordingly, in the structures of national origin. The main points in this process were:

Theories of natural law and the contractual origin of the state, adopted in Russia long before setting the goals of anti-feudal transformations and interpreted in a wide range of programs of several political trends (conservative, educational, radical);

Theories of utopian socialism that arose in early XIX centuries as an alternative to developing capitalism and adopted by liberal and radical noble movements, populists, revolutionary democrats of the late XIX - early XX centuries, who were uncompromisingly related to the idea of ​​Russia's consistent development;

Anthropological materialism, which in Russia has become the main theoretical system in almost all areas of the revolutionary movement;

Idealistic dialectics subjected to materialistic processing and understood as a method of revolutionary negation;

Mystical religious and philosophical systems, primarily J. de Maistre and J. Boehme, transferred to the soil of Russian Orthodoxy.

The penetration into Russia of the advanced philosophical ideas of Europe, their creative processing on a national basis, the originality of which was based on the uniqueness of Russian history and the original perception and interpretation of Christian doctrine, caused by the opposition of Russian Orthodoxy to all other Christian churches, and gave rise to the phenomenon that we today call Russian philosophy .

Explanation of the practical orientation of philosophical and social theories

The desire to overcome backwardness, the struggle to abolish serfdom, and then the autocracy, which stretched out for many years, led to a close connection between philosophical and social theories and the practice of the revolutionary movement. Therefore, in Russian philosophy, the so-called system-creation and abstract philosophizing are almost completely absent. All philosophers were included in the sphere of practical-political issues that worried contemporaries. Of course, there were inclinations towards speculative speculation, but not in the same form and not to the extent that it was, for example, in Germany. Therefore, the attitude towards philosophy on the part of the government was very wary. It was believed that "the benefits of philosophy have not been proven, but harm is possible." Philosophy in Russia was subjected to systematic persecution, and since the middle of the 19th century, its teaching in all higher educational institutions of the country was prohibited. Therefore, philosophy sought a way out in journalism, literary criticism, in art, closely intertwining with other forms of social consciousness, especially with literature. As A. Herzen noted in his time, among a people "deprived of public freedom, literature is the only tribune, from the height of which he makes the cry of his indignation and his conscience heard."

Russian philosophical literature was full of controversy, sharp criticism of the existing order, accompanied by the promotion of various positive social programs. But at the same time, it is self-critical, because it was forced to quickly respond to all changes in the social and political life of the country, which means that stagnation of thinking was excluded. But at the same time, dogmatism was preserved in relation to their "creed", that is, to the chosen direction of social thought.

Philosophy, detached from life and closed in speculative constructions, could not count on success in Russia. Therefore, it was in Russia, earlier than anywhere else, that philosophy turned out to be consciously subordinated to the solution of the urgent problems facing society.

Areas of philosophical interests of Russian enlighteners of the second half of XVIII century

To understand the philosophical process in Russia in terms of content, it is of great importance to trace the concept and problems that successively pass through several historical periods. They gave rise to diverse combinations of worldviews and were used simultaneously by all the struggling parties, currents, trends (of course, in different interpretations and conclusions). Now it is impossible to trace all the cross-cutting concepts and problems, but it makes sense to highlight some of them, which are quite relevant today. This is the problem of the relationship between Russia and the West, and social problems, etc.

Russian philosophy reached its highest development, the formation of its currents and schools, the entry into the world arena of its most significant representatives, the full-blooded realization of its national characteristics, Russian philosophy achieved in the last three centuries of its existence - the 18th-20th centuries.

Russian enlighteners of the second half of the 18th century (A. N. Radishchev, Ya. P. Kozelsky, D. S. Anichkov, I. A. Tretyakov, S. E. Desnitsky and others) continued such advanced traditions of Russian enlightenment as the department of philosophy from theology, the connection of philosophy with natural science, the social sciences and life. They constantly emphasized the social, civil character of philosophy.

Another area of ​​their philosophical interests was epistemology, or “knowledge of truth”, that is, the problems of the origin, development and improvement of human knowledge, the nature of this knowledge, the origin and relationship of soul and body, etc.

Finally, the educators pay much attention to the problem of man, synthesizing the first two of their interests.

The idealistic view of the relationship between the soul and the body was rejected by them. In those cases when medicine, physiology, psychology did not give grounds for materialistic statements, they, by refusing to solve the problem, declared its idealistic interpretation untenable (Ya. P. Kozelsky in Philosophical Proposals, A. N. Radishchev in the treatise “On Man , his mortality and immortality"). .....................................

During this period, Russian philosophical and socio-political thought continued its development. On the one hand, ideas and a circle of sources stand out that united the people in difficult conditions of foreign domination and dictatorship, called them to fight, called for spiritual stamina; on the other hand, there is a complication of philosophical problems, there are elements of a critical attitude to reality.

Genre and thematic coverage is expanding, new monuments of foreign literature are being translated and distributed, and their own original creations are being created.

By the end of the 14th century, Rus' had accumulated strength for a decisive turning point in its political, economic and spiritual development, for overthrowing the potential of foreign domination that held back its potential and uniting the lost and fragmented lands of the once united Kievan state in Russian state centered in Moscow.

At the end of the 14th century, the unifying policy of the Moscow principality was crowned with a major military success - the victorious battle on the Kulikovo field in 1380.

This success, although subsequently the Horde attacked Rus' repeatedly with devastating raids, instilled confidence in the victory over the conquerors, whose "evil-bitter" yoke was overthrown a hundred years later. The battle itself, in its meaning, is major event Russian history.

The Battle of Kulikovo caused a patriotic upsurge, many works of literature, art, folk art.

A new optimistic vision of the world emerges in the literary works of the Kulikovo cycle: “Zadonshchina”, “The Tale of the Mamaev Battle”, short and lengthy chronicle stories about the Battle of Kulikovo, “The Tale of the Life and Repose of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich” and a number of other written sources.

In honor of the victory, several memorial churches were erected.

Among them is the Kremlin’s “wonderful” Church of the Nativity of the Virgin (on the day of the church holiday, September 8, 1380, a battle took place), built by the widow of Dmitry Donskoy, Princess Evdokia in 1393.

She has survived to this day.

Many works of painting, graphics, and sewing reflected the spiritual uplift caused by a turning point in the history of the development of the Russian people.

The most striking work is "Zadonshchina", created by the Ryazan Zephanius directly in the wake of this event.

After a short introduction, "Zadonshchina" tells about the troubles of the Russian land, then the idea of ​​a description of the campaign and battle, grief for the dead soldiers and a solemn finale. The author comprehends the events from the tragic battle of Kalka to the Battle of Mamaev, glorifies the capital city of Moscow, gives a picture of the nationwide gathering of forces: “Horses neigh in Moscow, glory rings throughout the Russian land, trumpets blow in Kolomna, tambourines beat in Serpugov, banners stand at the great Don on the breze.

Sadness on the Russian land has finally been replaced by joy, exclaims the author, but the joy of the proud conquerors has drooped.

Great sacrifices paid for the victory, but the honor of Rus' was restored.

Confidently, with a sense of triumph and faith in the future, the words of Dmitry Donskoy addressed to Vladimir Andreevich, Prince of Serpukhov sound: “And let's go, brother, Prince Vladimir Andreevich, to our Zalesky land to the glorious city of Moscow and sit down, brother, on our reign, honor, brother, you have obtained a glorious name!

Created later, "The Legend of the Battle of Mamaev" is the most extensive work of the Kulikovo cycle. This essay is fictionalized, it contains a number of details (about the ambassadors to Mamai, about Dmitry Troitsky visiting the monastery and blessing him for the battle with Sergius of Radonezh, about the duel of Peresvet with Chelubey, and so on). There are historical inaccuracies in the story. For example, Metropolitan Cyprian is described as one of the inspirers of the military deeds of Dmitry Donskoy, although in reality the Grand Duke expelled the Metropolitan - during the battle he was in Kyiv.

Both genuine and invented details were introduced in order to emphasize the unity of Rus': princes and boyars, rulers and people, secular and spiritual authorities, in order to emphasize that only it, this unity could ensure the final victory over the enemy.

Such an adjustment of real history to ideological principles is characteristic not only of ancient Russian, but also of all world literature, especially in tense and responsible periods of the existence of peoples and states.

In this work, the Ryazan prince Oleg is condemned, who occupied an ambivalent position, which is assessed as a stupid betrayal. The story of Oleg's fawning over Mamai ends philosophical quote from biblical texts: ... "the wicked will perish, taking upon themselves vexation and reproach."

The typo that Oslyabya and Peresvet are sent to fight "with the filthy Polovtsi" has its own deep implication, because the Battle of Kulikovo was one of the most important centuries, but not the first and not the last, in the millennium-old struggle of Rus' with the steppe nomads, whose names were combined in the historical the memory of the people.

Before the campaign, Dmitry goes to the Archangel Cathedral to pray for the success of the enterprise and turns to his ancestors, who lie in the grand-ducal pantheon. Strengthened in spirit in the rightness of his cause, the prince bravely sets off on his journey.

^Many warriors of the opposing troops before the terrible battle felt the terrifying shadow of death. In general, the “Tale” is not a dry chronicle, but an excited, full of deep, often philosophical, reflections, a story about the inevitability, cruelty and great meaning of the battle of two worlds: the people defending the right to their own existence and the multi-tribal, hungry army of conquerors, of which there are so many from all sides came and will come again to plunder the Russian land.

The image of the Kulikovo field is vividly described, sagging from an unprecedented multitude of people before a great thunderstorm that will shake all the lands. Both troops clashed in a fierce slaughter, the earth turned red with blood - it is marked with fiery tongues in miniatures of the front lists, where martyr crowns descend from a cloud on the heads of dying soldiers.

The victory brought Dmitry eternal glory and the nickname Donskoy. The apostate Oleg Ryazansky fled from his principality, and "the great prince, plant your governors in Ryazan."

With such a significant phrase about strengthening the power of Moscow, the “Legend of the Mamaev Battle” ends.

The centers of the formation of the Great Russian nationality were Rostov, Suzdal, Vladimir and Moscow. Non-Slavic tribes who lived in the territory between the Oka and Volga rivers also took an insignificant part in the formation of the Russian nationality.

During this period, a number of remarkable folklore monuments developed in the field of oral folk art. Epics arose in Novgorod about Vasily Buslaev and Sadko, a rich guest. Many folk works reflect the theme of the heroic struggle of the Russian people against the Tatar-Mongolian and other invaders. On the basis of the songs of the Russian people, the tales that have come down to us about the battle on Kalka, about the glorious defender of the Ryazan land from the hordes of Batu, Yevpatia Kolovrat, about the defender of Smolensk, Mercury, were created.

The uprising in 1327 in Tver against the Tatar Baskak Shevkala is described in a song about Shchelkan Dudentevich. This song was widely distributed outside the Tver Principality. When glorifying the victory of the Russian people over the hordes of Mamai on the Kulikovo field, the old, well-known images of the ancient Kyiv heroes were used by the composers of epics to create works dedicated to the struggle against the Golden Horde yoke.

Russian literature of that time, reflecting the processes taking place in society, was devoted to substantiating the historical need for the formation of a single state. A whole cycle of legends was associated with the struggle of Rus' against the Tatar-Mongol yoke under the leadership of Moscow.

The heroic defense of their capital, which was abandoned by the princes and boyars, is described in the story of the destruction of Moscow by Tokhtamysh in 1382. The story vividly describes the feat of the urban population. "Lamentation" about the ruin of Moscow is imbued with deep In the "Lay on the life and death of the Russian Tsar, Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich" the idea of ​​the need for a strong grand duke's power is carried. This work was in tune with the processes of unification that took place in the country.

The conquest of Constantinople and the Slavic countries of the Balkan Peninsula by the Turkish invaders also evoked a response in Russian literature. Nestor Iskander's story about the capture of Constantinople was very popular in Rus'. In the story, on the example of the defense of the city, the idea of ​​the need to defend the fatherland, which is so close to the Russian people, vividly emerges.

In Moscow in the 14th-15th centuries, chronicles appeared at the princely court and the metropolitan see. They carried out the idea of ​​political unification of the Russian lands. The international significance of Moscow, as the capital of the emerging unified Russian state, determined the interest in questions of world history. The famous writer Pakhomiy Logofet compiled the "Russian Chronograph", in which he conveys the idea of ​​the unity of the Slavic peoples. In his work, he explores the history of the development of fraternal peoples, draws parallels between their historical destinies and the historical fate of the Russian people, and substantiates the need for a connection between Rus' and the southern and western Slavs.

In addition to the military and political struggle, in addition to the economic recovery, the growth of people's self-consciousness, the concentration of the spiritual forces of society, and the education of high moral qualities of the individual were important.

These goals were served by hagiographic literature, which had a teaching character in the Middle Ages and developed in Ancient Rus' into one of the most developed genres. Particularly important for the objective role of this literature in the period under consideration are the biographies of figures in Russian history created by ancient Russian authors.

“... The Old Russian biographer, with his historical view, embraced Russian life more boldly and broader than the chronicler,” wrote historian V. O. Klyuchevsky.

If in the XII-XIII centuries the images of people are static and monumental, reminiscent of heraldic figures, then in hagiographic Literature XIV- at the beginning of the 15th century, everything moves, everything changes, full of emotions, full of expression. In Russian hagiography, elements of the manifestation of an emotionally expressive style are associated with the names of Cyprian, Epiphanius the Wise, Pachomius Logofet.

The hagiographic genre in the works of Epiphanius the Wise reaches a deep philosophical level. It is known about this writer and thinker that he was born in Rostov, was tonsured in a local monastery, lived most of his life in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, traveled to Palestine and Mount Athos, and died around 1420.

His main works are "The Life of Stephen of Perm" and "The Life of Sergius of Rodonezh".

A widely educated person, generously gifted by nature, Epiphanius writes humble words about himself: that he is weak in mind and ignorant in words, immediately refuting himself with his writing talent.

Personally knowing Stefan, having talked a lot with him, Epiphanius collected all the factual information after his death and wrote his biography in a solemnly elevated style.

In the center of the description is a description of the high spiritual feat of Stefan - the enlightenment of the pagan people who lived in the Perm land. Stephen created the alphabet for the people who did not have a written language, therefore he is compared with the Slavic first teacher Cyril the Philosopher and the enlightened Hellenes.

Perm land received the beginning of spiritual enlightenment. Stefan was an educator high level, who introduced the small people to the developed Slavic and European civilization, becoming the prototype of those Russian enlighteners who brought the achievements of culture to many peoples of the multinational Russian state.

Epiphanius does not idealize reality. He vividly and psychologically authentically depicts the pagan rites of the Permians, their worship of the sacred birch, describes the confrontation between Stefan and the sorcerer Pam, who defended the ancient beliefs of the local population.

The priest Pam is trying to compromise Stefan, through whom the power of Moscow will lay a heavy hand on the wild, but free population. Here the hagiographer understands the complexity and ambiguity of the relationship between the grand ducal power and the peoples subordinate to it, which will grow into a serious national issue, and it will become one of the most difficult in the future. Russian Empire and later history.

So, within the framework of hagiographic literature, the complex problems of the political and cultural development of Russia were comprehended.

More documentary and narrative is the Life of Sergius of Rod Onega, which Epiphanius wrote already in his declining years.

Epiphany covers in detail the childhood and youth of the lad Bartholomew (the worldly name of Sergius). Hagiographic literature usually describes how a saint from an early age impresses everyone with his academic success. But in this life, the youth could not comprehend book reading for a long time, until the elder who appeared to him enlightened Bartholomew.

After the death of his parents, the young man leaves his father's house, goes with his brother to a deserted forest place and builds the first small wooden church in the name of the Trinity.

The theme of the Trinity runs through all life, which will be comprehended in Rus' not only in literature, but also in art as one of the most philosophical symbols expressing the mystery of natural and human existence.

In the same church he built, at the age of twenty-three he takes tonsure under the name of Sergius and begins monastic life.

In the biography of Sergius there are many key episodes that express the true essence of this man. One of them, called "On the poverty of Sergius's clothes and on a certain peasant", is indicative.

Sergius always wore the poorest, thinnest and simplest clothes. And one day a peasant who heard about his glory came to bow to him. Instead of a noble, richly dressed, full of grandeur, surrounded by the servants of the spiritual master, he saw an old man working in the garden, dressed poorly and in poverty. Having grown accustomed to distinguish the mighty of this world by outward splendor, the ignorant farmer could not immediately comprehend the spiritual greatness of the elder. Only later, after a friendly conversation, after the honor shown to Sergius by the visiting prince, did the ashamed peasant imbued with deep respect for the ascetic.

Such episodes, expressing a philosophical parable of true greatness and external reverence, are often found in world literature. According to Diogenes Laertes, the philosopher Zeno deliberately placed one of his students, distinguished by beauty and wealth, on a dirty bench so that he would not soil his clothes, and then gave him a place among the beggars, so that he would rub against their tatters in order to humble his arrogance: "There is nothing more indecent than pride, and especially in young people."

Not a single written source has survived from Sergius, he did not create a single work, but for his wisdom he was already glorified by his contemporaries and even more descendants (like Socrates, who did not write books and, despite this, became the personification of ancient Greek wisdom).

Sergius of Radonezh was involved in the fate of many great people of Rus'. The head of the Russian Church, Metropolitan Alexy, like the Grand Dukes, urged Sergius to become his successor, but he did not want to leave the Trinity, where he was laid after his death in the church he built himself.