Man, as a bio-social being, actively interacts with both surrounding nature, and with other people. If a person can interact with nature only through physical contact or indirectly through material objects, then with people he can use a special, unique means - communication.
Communication is the process of establishing and developing contacts between people and groups, generated by the needs of joint activities.
It includes 3 main components: communication (exchange of information), interaction (exchange of actions) and social perception (perception and understanding of a partner). Speech, oral and written, is used as a communication tool. Non-verbal communication is also used, realized through facial expressions, gestures, voice, posture, etc.
The role of communication in human development cannot be overestimated. There are many examples where the deprivation of human communication led to catastrophic consequences. These are Mowgli children raised by animals and incapable of social life. These include deaf-blind children, whose thinking lags significantly behind the thinking of healthy peers, etc.
With the help of communication, people solve many problems: exchange information and experience, organize joint activities, get to know each other and the world, exert influence, express thoughts, ideas and emotions, satisfy needs and much more. Communication helps not only to solve practical problems, but also affects a person’s internal state, his mood, emotions, and personality. In some situations it can lead to affects, both positive (delight) and negative (rage).
All this has a significant impact on the human psyche, leaving deep “traces.” They are able to influence personal qualities and decisions made, both at the moment of communication and in the distant future. After all, a word, like a deed, can be beneficial, or it can cause irreparable damage.
Therefore, you need not only to be able to communicate, but to do it correctly, especially when communicating with children. After all, their psyche, unlike adults, is extremely sensitive to various influences. And a carelessly spoken word can cause real, psychological trauma. Subsequently, it can result in aggressive, antisocial behavior of a person who is already stronger, but offended by the whole world.
This article examines the influence of communication on a person, his psyche and personality in early age periods (from birth to adolescence). The main consequences of correct and incorrect communication with a child are also described.
Communication in infancy
A newly born child, an infant (0-1 year old), does not yet have the ability to communicate verbally. But he is very sensitive to how adults communicate with them.
According to Elkonin D.V. in this period, communication is not just important, but the leading type of activity, which is directly emotional, non-verbal. For a baby, what is important is not what is said to him, but how they talk to him: what the face of the one who communicates with him looks like, what sounds he makes, etc.
An infant has an innate ability to determine the aggressive or friendly mood of those who come into contact with him by non-verbal signs. This can be considered part of the instinct of self-preservation, in order to notify in advance of a possible threat by shouting. Or tell me through a smile that everything is fine, you can contact me.
Lisina M.I. described communication at this age as situational and personal. It satisfies the baby’s need for the friendly attention of adults and uses expressive and facial means, in particular, the revitalization complex.
E. Erikson argued that depending on communication with the baby, as well as the timely satisfaction of his needs, a person develops basic trust in the world.
Therefore, if you communicate positively with the baby, smile, surround him with love and comfort, then the person develops a strong attitude towards the world as a friendly environment in which one can trust others. Then the person will grow more decisive, communicative, and purposeful. It will be characteristic of him creative activity, creating something valuable and useful not only for him, but also for others.
If, from infancy, a person observed pictures of violence, was subjected to it himself, was surrounded by aggression, hatred, loud, sharp sounds, then he will develop a negative attitude towards the world. Such a person can grow into an aggressive, insecure, withdrawn person with a lot of... Not only will it not benefit society, but on the contrary, it will harm everyone at any convenient moment.
In general, it is extremely important to communicate correctly and positively with your child from birth. Then he will grow into a successful, useful person who can improve our world.
Communication in early childhood
For a child at this age (1-3 years), object-manipulative activity becomes the leading activity. He begins to explore the world through active interaction with all sorts of objects that surround him. Through trial and error, he tries to understand the meaning of each object, its purpose, and what can be done with it.
In such a situation, communication acquires a more informative and educational value. Adults can show how to handle objects, how they can be modified, held, and how to work with them safely. The child gains the first experience of indirect interaction with the world, studies the methods and consequences of using various objects.
The child develops a quite distinct oral speech and now he can communicate using language, express his thoughts and desires. And to develop speech, he needs active practice, with which adults should help. You need to provoke him into conversation, listen to him carefully, ask questions, answer his questions clearly and completely, tell him short stories, give him small directions and instructions.
The child’s communication has a situational and business-like form. It satisfies the need for cooperation with adults, is directly related to objective activity, has a business motive and uses verbal means (speech).
Communication at this age can also be both positive and negative.
If you work with a child a lot, show him a lot of objects, teach him how to use them, and be calm about his mistakes, then the person grows up to be inquisitive, active, and independent. He will continue to strive to explore the world, engage in self-development and self-education, travel, make discoveries and engage in socially useful activities. He will study well, will be able to choose the profession that is most interesting to him, and will receive a good education in his professional activities.
On the other hand, a child can grow up in conditions of cognitive deprivation, come into contact with a very limited number of objects, no one shows him how to use them, and show aggression when making mistakes. In such conditions, a person will grow up extremely passive to development and learning, and may even speak late. Most likely, he will fail at school, is unlikely to receive a good professional education, and will not achieve success in work and in life.
Communication in preschool age
At this age (3-7 years), the leading activity is symbolic-modeling activity, which is embodied in role-playing games. In them, communication is used to organize and implement numerous game situations.
A preschooler no longer communicates with adults, but with peers. They discuss the game, come up with plots, rules, scenarios, and what items they will use. Communication during the game itself is of a modeling nature: children portray real and fictional characters, their behavior, facial expressions, and style of speech.
Such activities, which actively use communication, develop communicative, leadership and Creative skills: creativity, originality, innovation, sociability, independence, initiative, ability to negotiate, organize, delegate, etc.
Communication during this period has an extra-situational, personal and cognitive form. It satisfies the needs for respectful attitude of adults, mutual understanding and empathy, and has cognitive motives. Verbal means are used, very often questions (why, why, how, etc.).
A preschooler who actively participates in games grows up more confident, open, and proactive. Support from adults is required in the form of organizing conditions for such games, providing game materials, but leaving freedom to come up with increasingly complex plots and rules. Through this, the preschooler, thinking, perception, memory and other cognitive functions. He is able to solve assigned problems in an original way, shows ingenuity, and can find ways out of hopeless (for him) situations.
If a preschooler is limited in his ability to play, he is isolated from his peers, he experiences social deprivation, then his thinking and abilities develop extremely slowly. He can think in stereotypes, only repeats what he has seen, feels discomfort when asked to come up with something or solve a logical problem, copes with them slowly or cannot solve them at all.
Communication in primary school age
During this period (7-12 years), the leading educational activity for the child is schooling. Now communication is the main tool for understanding the world and oneself. The main “interlocutor” is the teacher, who helps the student expand his picture of the world and change his attitude towards him and himself.
When communicating with a teacher, what is first important for a student is the teaching style, the use of game elements to explain the subjects being studied, the manner of speech, and its expressiveness. In the future, the essence of the information conveyed by the teacher is more important to the child. He tries to understand the meaning of the things he is told about, tries to apply the acquired knowledge in practice.
Characteristic feature At this age, the internalization of speech is completed and it becomes an instrument of thinking, i.e. verbal and logical thinking develops. Moreover, thinking, which actively uses speech, becomes the main mental function that a person will continue to develop in subsequent age periods.
During this period, it is important to properly organize the educational process both at school and at home. If the school creates conditions in which a child is interested in studying subjects, then he develops inquisitive, active, proactive, and confident. He will place special emphasis on those subjects in which he gets good grades, which give him the most pleasure. Perhaps his future professional activity will be connected with these areas.
Favorable conditions must also be created at home. You should have everything you need to complete homework and study subjects independently. But it is much more important that at home and on the street he can apply in practice the knowledge that he received at school. Adults, especially parents, should actively help with this. This will allow him to understand the essence of the things that the teacher is telling him, to realize how important it is to listen to him carefully and study school subjects. In the future, he will be inclined to self-development and self-education, and will strive to get a good education in a more meaningful, highly paid profession.
And when a child is both at school and at home, exclusively under critical supervision, experiences severe pressure from the teacher and adults that he simply must study well without explaining why he needs this in the first place, then the child will be more withdrawn and insecure , passive, will get bad grades and do minimal homework. In the future, this may result in receiving minimal vocational education and performing simple, low-paid work. And there it’s not far from alcoholism and antisocial behavior.
Thus, it depends on adults what kind of attitude to learning and development a child will develop at this age.
Communication in adolescence
During this period (12-15 years), communication again becomes the leading activity. Only now, unlike infancy, communication for a teenager is of an intimate and personal nature and is aimed primarily at peers of the same and opposite sex.
A characteristic feature of this period is the puberty of a teenager. He develops a sexual desire, which he can satisfy primarily with those with whom he communicates closely.
Communication at this age is used for modeling adult life. Teenagers begin romantic relationships, but not so much to start a family, but to gain experience in such relationships. Communication with a partner brings more pleasure than with other peers, but also leads to more conflicts.
In addition, at this age the teenager’s desire to be part of society intensifies, which he expresses through participation in various social groups: circles, sections, public organizations, assistance in hospitals, nursing homes, starting work, etc. This develops the teenager’s communication skills when communicating with partners, colleagues and management.
Teenagers also begin to create their own teams to achieve common goals and realize common interests. For example, to solve school problems, they create creative associations, musical groups, etc. This develops the ability to communicate constructively, negotiate, seek compromises, distribute roles, make choices, etc. Those. what you need to successfully create an effective, strong team.
For full development at this age, conditions are needed in which a teenager can freely communicate with peers and actively interact with them. Then his communication skills will develop, he will be more confident, proactive, and creative. In the future, the teenager will be more successful in his professional career; there is a high probability that he will create his own business and start family life without any problems.
If a teenager experiences deprivation, he is forbidden to communicate with friends, his access to communications with them is limited, and his desire to attend any clubs is mocked, then the teenager will grow up aggressive, embittered, withdrawn, etc. It will be difficult for him to start a family and move up the career ladder. Will experience feelings of loneliness, sadness and depression.
Conclusion
Thus, communication is an extremely important means of both development and socialization of a person. Proper communication with a child from birth will create conditions for improving all the qualities necessary for an adult to become successful and happy. And it is precisely such a person who is able to create valuable results, real masterpieces that will benefit humanity.
The main tool for the development of communication is the mechanism of advanced initiative of an adult. It is adults who must enrich the content of the child’s activities and relationships, create a zone through setting tasks and carrying out joint activities with adults.
In general, we can say that communication with a child should be positive, constructive and developmental. And you need to make sure that the child himself communicates kindly, actively, shows interest in others, asks questions, answers them himself and expands his vocabulary. Then he will be able to achieve many goals much easier than people who have difficulty communicating.
It must be remembered that each age period described above leaves a very bright, unique imprint on the psyche and personality of a person. It cannot be assumed that if mistakes were made at one age, they can be easily corrected in the future. Psychocorrection is of course possible, but it does not give a guaranteed result and treatment can take up a lot of resources. In any case, there will still be a psychological “scar” that will affect the person’s entire life.
Therefore, it is extremely important, first of all, for parents to prepare for proper communication with children, learn, and apply effective upbringing and teaching techniques. After all, neither friends, nor other adults, nor school are capable of providing such strong influence per person at an early age, like a family. And it depends on parental behavior how successful, useful and happy their beloved child will be in the future.
List of used literature
1. Maklakov A.G. General psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2012. - 583 p.
2. Sapogova E.E. Psychology of human development. Tutorial. - M.: Aspect Press, 2005. - 460 p.
3. Vygodsky L.S. Thinking and speech. - M.: AST, 2011. - 637 p.
4. Karabanova O.A. Age-related psychology. - M.: Iris-press, 2005. - 237 p.
5. Andreeva G.M. Social Psychology. Textbook for higher educational institution. - M.: Aspect Press, 2001. - 290 p.
6. Galiguzova L.N., Smirnova E.O. Stages of communication: from one year to 7 years. M.: Education 1992. - 143 p.
Sincerely,
Sergey Marchenko
Creator of "SiRiOS" and website
Trainer for conscious self-realization
Life coach, consultant, systems engineer
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Introduction
1. The concept of communication and interpersonal relationships
1.1. Communication
1.2. Perception
1.3. Reflection
2. Personal qualities that influence communication processes
2.1. Psychological appearance of a person
2.2. Features of personality types
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
In psychology, communication is understood as the establishment and maintenance of purposeful, direct or indirect contact between people who are somehow connected to each other psychologically.
Essential in this definition is the assertion of the social nature of communication. The process of establishing and maintaining contact between people is created by all its participants. Their activity and interest in the success of the contact may be different, but each participant in the communication is its subject. The productivity of communication, therefore, depends not only on its initiator. “Communication is not the addition, not the superimposition of parallel developing activities on one another, but rather the interaction of subjects entering into it as partners” 2.
The phenomenon of communication exists in its entirety, is determined by the values and qualities of the subjects of communication and has a normative nature. The basis of this principle is the “law of three-dimensionality of human existence,” the essence of which is characterized by the unity, interconnection and interdependence of axiological, anthropological and normative dimensions.
In communication between these spheres, there are relations of harmonious correspondence, the essence of which lies in the internal (within the elements of the sphere) and in the external (between the elements of the spheres) their consonance.
The factor that unites all spheres of communication is the moral one: it is this factor that determines the degree of harmony in their correspondence.
The moral choice of communication values presupposes that the subjects of communication have appropriate moral qualities and adherence to such norms that could not contradict this choice.
The level of culture and ethics of communication are characterized by the degree of perfection and harmony of the spheres and their constituent elements.
If there is no harmony between the values, norms and qualities of the subjects of communication, then there is the potential for conflict situations to arise.
1. Concept of communication and interpersonal relationships
1.1. Communication
Communication is a complex, multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, perception and understanding of another person (Brief Psychological Dictionary. M., 1985). From the definition of communication it follows that this is a complex process that includes three components:
· the communicative side of communication consists of the exchange of information between people;
· interactive consists in organizing interaction between people (for example, you need to coordinate actions, distribute functions or influence the mood, behavior, beliefs of the interlocutor);
· the perceptual side of communication consists in the process of communication partners perceiving each other and establishing mutual understanding on this basis.
Communication is the process of two-way exchange of information leading to mutual understanding. Communication in Latin means “common shared with all.” If mutual understanding is not reached, communication has not taken place. To succeed in communication, you need to have feedback (how people understood you, how they perceive you, how they relate to the problem).
Communicative competence is the ability to establish and maintain necessary contacts with other people. Effective communication is characterized by: achieving mutual understanding between partners, a better understanding of the situation and the subject of communication (achieving greater certainty in understanding the situation helps resolve problems, ensures the achievement of goals with optimal use of resources). Communicative competence is considered as a system of internal resources necessary for building effective communication in a certain range of situations of interpersonal interaction.
Poor communication can be caused by:
· stereotypes – simplified opinions about individuals or situations; as a result, there is no objective analysis and understanding of people, situations, problems;
· “preconceived ideas” – the tendency to reject everything that contradicts one’s own views, everything that is new, unusual (“We believe what we want to believe”). We rarely realize that another person's interpretation of events is as valid as our own;
· bad relationships between people, because if a person’s attitude is hostile, it is difficult to convince him of the validity of our view;
· lack of attention and interest of the interlocutor, and interest arises when a person realizes the significance of the information for himself: with the help of this information one can obtain the desired development or prevent an undesirable development of events;
· neglect of facts, that is, the habit of drawing conclusions in the absence of a sufficient number of facts;
· errors in constructing statements: incorrect choice of words, difficulty in communication, poor persuasiveness, illogicality;
· incorrect choice of communication strategy and tactics.
The transmission of any information is possible through various sign systems. Usually, a distinction is made between verbal (speech is used as a sign system) and nonverbal (various non-speech sign systems) communication.
The structure of verbal communication includes:
· the meaning and meaning of words and phrases (“A person’s intelligence is manifested in the clarity of his speech”). The accuracy of the use of the word, its expressiveness and accessibility, the correct construction of the phrase and its intelligibility, the correct pronunciation of sounds and words, the expressiveness and meaning of intonation play an important role;
· speech sound phenomena: speech rate (fast, medium, slow), voice pitch modulation (smooth, sharp), voice pitch (high and low), rhythm (uniform, intermittent), timbre (rolling, hoarse, creaky), intonation, diction of speech. Observations show that the most attractive in communication is a smooth, calm, measured manner of speech;
· characteristic specific sounds that arise during communication: laughter, crying, whispering, sighs, as well as separation sounds (coughing); zero sounds - pauses.
Research shows that in the daily act of human communication, words make up 7%, intonation sounds 38%, non-speech interaction 53%.
In turn, nonverbal communication also has several forms: kinetics (optical-kinetic system, including gestures, facial expressions, pantomime); paralinguistics (system of voice vocalization, pauses, coughing, etc.); proxemics (norms for organizing space and time in communication); visual communication (eye contact system).
Information about what a person is experiencing can be provided by facial expressions - the movement of facial muscles, reflecting the internal emotional state. Facial expressions carry more than 70% of the information, that is, a person’s eyes, gaze, and face can say more than spoken words. Thus, it has been observed that a person tries to hide his information (or lies) if his eyes meet his partner’s eyes for less than 1/3 of the conversation time.
Gestures carry a lot of information when communicating; in sign language, as in speech, there are words and sentences.
The interactive side of communication is a term that denotes the characteristics of those components of communication that are associated with the interaction of people, with the direct organization of their joint activities. It is extremely important for its participants not only to exchange information, but also to organize the exchange of actions and plan them. Communication is organized during joint activities.
The most common is the division of all interactions into two opposite types: cooperation and competition. The stern of cooperation and competition also speaks of consent and conflict, opportunism and opposition, association and dissociation. Behind all these concepts, the principle of identifying different types of interaction is clearly visible. In the first case, such manifestations are analyzed that contribute to the organization of joint activities and are “positive” from this point of view. The second group includes interactions that in one way or another “shatter” joint activities and represent a certain kind of obstacle.
1.2. Perception
The process of perception by one person of another acts as an obligatory component of communication and constitutes what is called perception. Since a person always enters into communication as a person, he is perceived by another person - a communication partner - also as a person. Based on the external side of behavior, we seem to “read” another person, decipher the meaning of his external data. The impressions that arise in this case play an important regulatory role in the process of communication: firstly, because, by learning about another, the knowing individual himself is formed; secondly, because the success of organizing coordinated actions with him depends on the degree of accuracy of “reading” another person.
The idea of another person is closely related to the level of one’s own self-awareness: the more fully the other person is revealed (in more and deeper characteristics), the more complete the idea of oneself becomes. In the course of getting to know another person, several processes are carried out simultaneously: an emotional assessment of this other person, an attempt to understand the structure of his actions, and the construction of a strategy for one’s behavior.
However, at least two people are involved in these processes, and each of them is an active subject. Consequently, comparison of oneself with others is carried out, as it were, from two sides: each of the partners likens itself to the other. This means that when building an interaction strategy, everyone has to take into account not only the needs, motives, and attitudes of the other, but also how this other understands my needs, motives, and attitudes. All this leads to the fact that the analysis of awareness of oneself through another includes two sides: identification and reflection.
The main mechanisms of mutual understanding in the communication process are identification, empathy and reflection.
The term “identification” has several meanings in social psychology. In communication issues, identification is the mental process of assimilating oneself to a communication partner in order to cognize and understand his thoughts and ideas.
Empathy also refers to the mental process of likening oneself to another person, but with the goal of “understanding” the experiences and feelings of the person being cognized. The word “understanding” is used here in a metaphorical sense—empathy is “affective understanding.”
As can be seen from the definitions, identification and empathy are very close in content and often in the psychological literature the term “empathy” has a broad interpretation - it includes the processes of understanding both the thoughts and feelings of a communication partner. At the same time, when talking about the process of empathy, one must keep in mind, of course, a positive attitude towards the individual.
This means two things: a) accepting a person’s personality as a whole; b) own emotional neutrality, lack value judgments about the perceived.
1.3. Reflection
Reflection in the problem of understanding each other is an individual’s understanding of how he is perceived and understood by his communication partner. In the course of mutual reflection of the participants in communication, reflection is a kind of feedback that contributes to the formation and strategy of behavior of the subjects of communication, correction of their understanding of the characteristics of each other’s inner world.
As noted earlier, the content of interpersonal perception depends on the characteristics of both the subject and the object of perception because any perception is also a certain interaction between two participants in this process, and an interaction that has two sides: evaluating each other and changing some characteristics of each other thanks to the very fact of his presence. In the first case, interaction can be stated by the fact that each of the participants, evaluating the other, strives to build a certain system of behavior. If every person always had complete information about the people with whom he enters into communication, then he could build tactics for interacting with them quite accurately. However, in Everyday life the individual, as a rule, does not have such accurate information, which forces him to attribute to others the reasons for their actions and actions. A causal explanation of the actions of another person by “attributing” to him feelings, intentions, thoughts and motives of behavior is called causal attribution (from the Latin “causa” - cause, “attribution” - attribution). “Attribution” is carried out on the basis of the similarity of behavior with some other patterns that existed in the past experience of the subject of perception, or on the basis of an analysis of one’s own motives assumed in a similar situation (in this case, the identification mechanism may operate).
2. Personality qualities influencing communication processes
2.3. Psychological appearance of a person
Communication processes are impossible without human participation, since it is the person who is the main and main subject of communication. And this factor significantly determines the form and content of communication. How nature made a person, and what he himself did with this nature - all this, one might say, determines the “human” dimensions of communication. A lot depends on the type of person who enters into communication: the motives for communication, the perception of the partner, the choice of communication style, etc.
The communication process is regulated, first of all, by moral values, ideals, principles and norms. Legal regulation cannot cover all the subtleties, all the nuances, all the diversity, all the depth of this mysterious “world of communication”. Undoubtedly, communication is determined and regulated not only by moral imperatives, but also by psychological, social, aesthetic and even physiological and medical factors. However, as experience shows, it is moral principles that ultimately determine the direction, spiritual coloring, and value orientation of all real aspects in the sphere of communication: it is impossible to imagine a single phenomenon of communication without a “moral component.”
The psychological appearance of a person is very diverse and is determined both by innate properties and acquired in the process of upbringing, training, and mastering the material and spiritual culture of society. Through individuality, the uniqueness of a person, his abilities, and his preferred field of activity are revealed.
In the individuality of a person, basic properties are distinguished - his self-esteem, personality type, temperament, and human abilities. It is the basic properties, which represent a fusion of her innate and acquired traits in the process of education and socialization, that form a certain style of behavior and activity of the individual.
A personality has individual traits and qualities - intellectual, moral, emotional, volitional, formed under the influence of society as a whole, as well as in the process of family, labor, social, and cultural life of a person. In communication great importance acquires knowledge and consideration of the most typical traits of people’s behavior, their character traits and moral qualities. Business communication should be built on the basis of such moral qualities of the individual and categories of ethics as honesty, truthfulness, modesty, generosity, duty, conscience, dignity, honor, which give business relations a moral character.
2.4. Features of personality types
Almost any of the known personality typologies also includes such features of personality types that manifest themselves in communication.
Thus, people differ from each other in the strength of their response to environmental influences, including the appeals of other people to them, in the energy they display, in the pace and speed of mental processes. Such mental differences, which appear under other equal conditions, form an individually unique, biologically determined set of dynamic and emotional manifestations of the psyche, which is called temperament.
Traditionally, there are four types of temperament: sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, melancholic.
A sanguine person is cheerful, energetic, proactive, receptive to new things, and quickly gets along with people. Easily controls his emotions and switches from one type of activity to another.
The phlegmatic person is balanced, slow, and has difficulty adapting to new activities and new environments. He thinks about a new task for a long time, but once he starts it, he usually finishes it. The mood is usually even and calm.
A choleric person is active, enterprising, has a great capacity for work, and perseverance in overcoming difficulties, but is subject to sudden mood swings, emotional breakdowns, and depression. In communication he can be harsh and not restrained in his expressions.
A melancholic person is impressionable, highly emotional, and more susceptible to negative emotions. In difficult situations, he tends to become confused and lose his composure. Little predisposed to active communication. In a favorable environment, he can cope well with his responsibilities.
In the 20-30s of the 20th century, the doctrine of types received more complete justification nervous system. I. P. Pavlov identified three main properties of the nervous system: strength, balance and mobility of excitatory and inhibitory processes. The strength of the nervous system is the most important indicator type: the performance of cerebral cortex cells and their endurance depend on this property. Mobility is the rate at which one nervous process changes to another. Balance – the degree of balance between excitatory and inhibitory processes. Each type includes components that I. P. Pavlov gave the following characteristics.
Strong. A person maintains a high level of performance during long and intense work and quickly restores strength. In a difficult, unexpected situation, he keeps himself under control and does not lose his vigor or emotional tone. Does not pay attention to small, distracting influences, is not vulnerable.
Balanced. This person behaves calmly and collectedly in the most stimulating environments. Easily suppresses unnecessary and inadequate desires and expels extraneous thoughts. Works smoothly, without random ups and downs.
Mobile. A person has the ability to quickly and adequately respond to changes in a situation, easily abandons developed but no longer useful stereotypes and quickly acquires new skills and habits for new conditions and people. Moves easily from rest to activity and from one activity to another. Emotions arise quickly and are clearly manifested. Capable of instant memorization, accelerated tempo of activity and speech.
The combination of these personality traits serves as an explanation for the classification of temperaments that has been known since ancient times. Namely: the sanguine temperament corresponds to a strong, balanced, fast type nervous system; phlegmatic temperament – strong, balanced, slow type; choleric temperament – strong, unbalanced, active type; melancholic temperament – a weak type of nervous system.
Swiss psychologist Carl Jung divided personalities into extroverts and introverts. The extraventive type of people is characterized by a focus on interaction with the outside world, a craving for new experiences, impulsiveness, and sociability. Introverts, on the contrary, are focused on their inner world and are prone to introspection, isolation, and are characterized by retardation of movements and speech.
Personal typology, developed by O. Kreger and M. Tewson in line with socionics, considers the following types.
Introvert. Thinks through what he wants to say and expects it from others, likes to be left to his own devices, is considered a “good listener,” does not like to interrupt others or be interrupted in conversation, tends to be alone, etc.
Sensory. Prefers precise answers and precise questions, concentrates on the moment, likes to deal with numbers and facts and clear instructions, perceives details more easily than the big picture, takes everything very literally, etc.
Intuitive. Has a habit of thinking about several things at once and may be considered absent-minded; neglects details, preferring the big picture, fantasizes, the motive for many actions is pure curiosity.
Thoughtful. Does not lose composure in difficult situations, seeks the truth in a dispute, is proud of his objectivity, and remembers numbers and numbers more easily than faces and names.
Sensing. He considers a good decision to be one that takes into account the feelings of other people, is inclined to help others even to his own detriment, does not tolerate conflicts and strives to resolve them.
Decisive. He is careful and is never late, plans his day and expects this from others, does not like surprises and makes this clear to others, and is sure to complete his work.
Perceiver. He is absent-minded, can easily get lost, does not set tasks for himself and waits for everything to become clear, prefers spontaneity and creativity to accuracy, does not like to be obliged, has nothing against uncertainty.
The most common form of business communication is dialogue communication, i.e. such verbal communication in which the moral qualities of the individual and character traits by which this or that individual is correlated with a certain type of temperament are most fully manifested.
The behavior of representatives of any of the above types in the process of communication, if typological traits have an extreme form of expression, can lead to difficulties in mutual understanding. When communicating, you need to take into account not only strengths each type, but also strive to balance its extreme manifestations, looking closely at the qualities of their antipodes and demonstrating the behavior of the opposite type.
Conclusion
There are no two absolutely identical people. This is true for both physical and psychological characteristics. Some people are calm, others are hot-tempered, some are able to work long and hard to achieve results, others put all their strength into one “jerk”. Psychological differences between people are objective - they are explained by the physiological characteristics of the functioning of the nervous system. The character of the individual, his success or failure in a specific professional activity, the style of interpersonal communication, and interaction with other people in the professional and personal spheres depend on these characteristics to a large extent (although not completely - the most important role is played by the upbringing of the individual).
Knowledge of individual personal characteristics, hidden from external observation, of teachers, managers, consultants, is of great importance for the success of training, education and professional activities.
Depending on the type of temperament, the nature of the course of nervous processes, character accentuations, the level of anxiety and psycho-emotional stability, the practice of communication or the organization of work should be built in different, sometimes opposite, methods.
It is equally important to take into account individual personal characteristics to optimize professional activity. Knowledge of individual personality traits has a great influence on the effectiveness of business communication and communication in general.
Bibliography
1. Andreeva I.V. Ethics of business relations. – St. Petersburg: Vector, 2006. – 160 p.
2. Asmolov A.G. Personality as a subject of psychological research, M., 1984.
3. Kronik A.A. Interpersonal assessment in groups. Kyiv, 1982.
4. Maslyaev O. Psychology of personality. – Donetsk, 1997.
5. General psychology / ed. V.V. Bogoslovsky, A.G. Kovalev, A.A. Stepanov. – M., 1981.
A person’s personality develops under the continuous intervention of the external environment, in which communication is given one of the dominant places. Communication helps people solve many problems: exchange information and experience, organize joint activities, get to know each other and the world, influence, express thoughts, emotions, ideas, satisfy needs, etc. Communication solves both practical problems and influences the internal state of the individual, her mood and emotions.
In some situations, the influence of communication is observed in affects, both negative (anger) and positive (joy).
The influence of communication on the formation of a person’s personality is enormous. Some patterns can be found in it. If parents and their child reason carefully and calmly, then their child will grow up calm and reasonable. If it is difficult for parents to speak calmly, their speech is filled with hysterical notes, then their child will grow up unbalanced. This is due to the fact that the baby has overexcited instincts and in every situation he recognizes something emotionally important to him. This trait is classified as emotional. It often leads to wear and tear of the nervous system. Emotional lability is considered a disorder characterized by unstable mood. Those who have this trait will react emotionally to all sorts of events that do not even imply such an obvious reaction.
The negative impact of communication is reflected in the individual’s psyche, leaving deep “traces” there. Communication influences a person’s personal qualities and the decisions he makes. A spoken word can be beneficial, or it can cause irreparable damage (), so it is important to be able not only to communicate, but to do it correctly.
Methods of influence in communication
Often a person finds himself in a situation where the interlocutor’s behavior infuriates him, and he has to “get on his nerves” by trying to somehow influence him by changing his attitude or actions.
Often, when faced with a blank wall of resistance, a person is overcome by despair from the impossibility of influencing what is happening. Psychologists recommend relaxing. The way out is simple and it is not where people are looking for it.
Tip 1.
You should stop doing things that do not give the desired result. Of course, no one suggests accepting the situation, but insisting on pointless attempts at persuasion will 100% worsen the relationship.
In our case, the statement “water wears away stones” works in the other direction. And the communication partner will avoid contact without changing his behavior.
Therefore, it will be more effective to do something different that the person has not done before. His behavior must come as a surprise, radically opposite to previously habitual actions, in order to influence the interlocutor in the way he needs. 
This must be done because a person often does repetitive actions every day that do not bring results. Driving on autopilot is much more pleasant, since the usual reactions and economical behavior require minimal costs.
Psychologists have found that any person in a particular place or at a certain time of day in the presence of certain people may be more susceptible to conflicts than in another place, company or time of day. It follows from this that there are factors that trigger the mechanism of patterned behavior. And the interlocutor whom you want to change also exhibits similar stimulus-response behavior patterns. And continuing to be persistent in ineffective ways of influencing in communication only perpetuates the negative reaction of the interlocutor. This should be remembered, and if a person is interested in breaking the vicious circle, he needs to say or do something that he has never done before. Any change in actions, time, setting, witnesses to a conversation, or, conversely, their absence, can bring a significant shift in relationships.
Tip 2.
Turn 180 degrees.
Often, most people react negatively when they are taught, they can only tolerate this from their boss, but this does not mean at all that they will do so. Instructions and teachings provoke resistance and internal protest. Therefore, you should do the radical opposite of what a person usually does: approve, agree, encourage. The main thing is not to go too far, so as not to think it’s mockery, while maintaining intonation and seriousness of facial expression.
Tip 3.
Problems in relationships quite often arise because people imagine that they can foresee the future. By predicting negative consequences, a person behaves in such a way that provokes the interlocutor to react to the spoken words in a certain way. Subtle signals sent lead to results that the individual often fears.
Tip 4.
It's better to do than to say. This strategy involves abandoning words in favor of concrete actions. You need to imagine that the words are over and send the interlocutor a message through action. While a person is speaking, his words are empty words, so it is worth moving on to active influence through behavior. You need to think about how to convey your position without words.
Tip 5.
Relationships are close to a “swing”, this is especially found in the relationship between a man and a woman, for example, when one is more active, then the other is more passive in actions. If you want your partner to do something more, then you should pay less attention to it. By not interfering, a person transfers the active principle into the hands of a partner and gives the other the opportunity to act. Thus, by stepping aside you can achieve results. The partner has to reflect on the current situation, take the initiative and look for a way out.
Tip 6.
People perceive information through their ears, eyes, movements and touch. Using one method to convey information is not enough; you need to change the means of transmission, showing creativity. You can leave a note in a visible place, a message on your phone, or send a message by mail.
The influence of communication is not only manifested face to face, verbally. It is likely that you will be able to reach your interlocutor in an unexpected way, in an unusual way. Therefore, it is important to observe the interlocutor’s response to your actions. If the tactics do not have an effect for some time, you need to return to tip 1.
The ability to influence during communication comes through experience; only through practice can you realize the correctness of your behavior in any situation.
Influence of individual characteristics
Positive communication between people is an art. Some individuals are given the ability to master this art, attracting those around them and giving them positivity, while others do not, and thereby push them away from themselves.
To always achieve desired result, you should follow certain rules that will help you exert influence when communicating.
Eye contact
During communication, both the words and the direction of the eyes matter. The gaze should be open and direct. A bored look can make your interlocutor doubt the sincerity of your words. By hiding your interlocutor's eyes, the latter will get the impression of insincerity.
It is also important not to forget that an energetic handshake will help create a favorable impression, and a smile will win over any interlocutor.
Gestures
Emotional, sudden movements of the head and hands should be avoided during communication, as this looks funny.
Communication is a dialogue
Therefore, it is important to let the interlocutor speak and when asking a question, listen to the answer.
Don't complain
There is no need to complain and abuse reproaches. Communication should be pleasant and positive; it is important to learn how to give good emotions. If life is going through a difficult period, then you should refrain from burdening yourself with your problems, so as not to lose an interlocutor in the future who does not want to listen to whining.
It's better to remain silent
Those individuals who prefer to speak the truth face to face often turn out to be tactless. Therefore, before telling your truth, it is important to think about whether your interlocutor is ready to accept it. 
QUESTION No. 1 ESSENCE AND FEATURES OF COMMUNICATION
Before talking about the essence and limitless variety of manifestations of the phenomenon of human communication, it is necessary to identify its most important aspects in terms of meaning (meaning) and significance (place occupied in people’s lives) for society and the individual.
Communication is:
– factor of human life. Connected with this is the idea of both the individual’s pliability to certain influences of people (the effect of group pressure, conformity, etc.), and the recognition of the diversity of the methods themselves. psychological impact or the pressure of people on each other (infection, rumors, suggestion, hypnosis, persuasion, leadership, fashion, etc.);
– need, motive for behavior and activity, purpose and meaning of relationships with other people;
– source of knowledge and understanding of other people.
Communication permeates the entire mental life of a person. But activity and communication depend on the mental state of a person. Full communication creates a state of elation. Conversely, poor communication, an unrealized need for communication, has a destructive effect on a person’s general mental state. Communication shapes interpersonal and business relationship between people, affects the system social relations. The importance of communication, thus, is obvious and indisputable.
The meaning of communication(its meaning):
1) a source of mental and psychological satisfaction, states of joy and happiness (the joy of motherhood; the joy of friendly, creative, loving communication; the joy of communication with nature and art);
2) a source of negative emotions, personal drama. Without this, there would be no dramatic genres in literature, theater and art in general;
3) communication can be neutral, everyday. An alternative to it is festive communication.
Attention to certain meanings of communication as it is perceived by a person changes, attention is focused on one or another value characteristics.
Despite the importance of communication, it can have very different effects and consequences depending on how it is mediated or refracted in our consciousness, hence the variety of its meanings for each of us. Therefore, the meaning of communication is always mediated by the level of our own psychological culture and readiness to communicate with other people.
Is the ability and willingness to communicate innate or acquired? It can only partially be innate in nature; after all, it is knowledge about the phenomenon of human communication.
Let us consider the phenomenon of communication as a factor in human life from several perspectives.
Communication is an essential characteristic and condition of human existence
communication as a way of manifestation of human essence
Any objective (both material and spiritual) activity presupposes, as a condition for its successful implementation, the presence of normal communication between people. In other words, communication is not only a necessary, but also the most essential socio-psychological aspect of any activity. It is in the process of communication and only through it that the essence of a person can manifest itself. This circumstance was also pointed out by L. Feuerbach, but he reduced the entire diverse structure of human relationships to the relationship of “I” and “You”,
and the essence of a person is related to his tribal affiliation. For this, K. Marx criticized him, pointing out that the fact of the generic isolation of a person and the possibility of personalized interpersonal connections owe their origin to the process of socialization based on the development of the whole variety of specifically human forms of activity and the social relations arising from them.
Communication as a factor in human development
The nature and place of the individual in society is determined by belonging to specifically human forms of activity (work and social communication). Communication is a decisive prerequisite for the emergence of consciousness and language. The initial function of human consciousness is orientation in the immediate environment of existence, that is, surrounded by other people. Language arises in response to the need of people for the mutual exchange of information in order to coordinate their efforts and the most effective interaction.
Communication as a condition of existence and an organic human need
The need for communication is one of the earliest and specifically human needs, observed equally in both the phylogenetic and ontogenetic development of man. The social nature of the need for communication is the need for joint activities. But a person’s social nature also manifests itself in conditions of relative isolation from other people, in a situation of exclusion from the constant sphere of communication. It has been experimentally proven that a person can think normally for a long time only under the condition of continuous information communication with the outside world. Complete information isolation is the beginning of madness.
two conditions: awareness of the importance for a person of satisfying his organic need for communication and the need to prepare people for conditions of being in relative isolation - forced scientists, and above all psychologists, to study the specific conditions of space flight. A person is tightly isolated for six hours in a thermal and pressure chamber; he does not see, does not hear, and does not receive any information from the outside. A significant part of the subjects under these conditions, and these are usually healthy, physically strong people, press the button before the deadline, demanding that the experiment be stopped. It has been confirmed that among the difficulties that a person faces in conditions of isolation from the outside world is not only an unsatisfied need for communication, but also the inability to navigate in time. The latter leads to various mental deformations, pseudopsychopathological changes (hallucinations, delusions, etc.), which are relatively easily eliminated after the restoration of normal communication.
Particularly interesting from the point of view of mental changes are experiments on long-term informational isolation of a person from the social environment. One of these experiments was carried out on himself by 35-year-old furniture maker and amateur speleologist from Nice A. Senni. He broke the record for the duration of underground solitude by staying in a cave in the Alps-Maritimes for 125 days at a depth of 100 meters completely alone (1964).
French speleologist M. Siffre (director of Senny's experiments) studied the adaptability of the human body to life in complete isolation from the outside world. Senny, according to the conditions of the experiment, was deprived of a watch and any other devices that would allow him to determine time. He lost all concept of time. When three days later he was warned about the imminent exit to the surface, he was surprised: according to his calculations, only half of the time had passed.
Experiments were conducted on long-term isolation and small groups of people. In groups, an internal connection and a factor of mutual communication are manifested, and this circumstance makes it possible to increase the period of isolation. For the first time in the world, such an experiment was carried out in our country in 1967–1968. Three people tested the ground-based complex of life activity systems for one year.
A person’s need for communication develops and changes throughout his life, i.e. it is a dynamic factor, as evidenced by the moral progress of the individual, increasing social activity and sociability.
Communication as a factor in the life of a community
The influence of communication on people's behavior
QUESTION No. 1, No. 2 CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION, TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Primitive
The interlocutor is assessed from the point of view of necessity or uselessness. If needed, the contact is active; if not, the interlocutor is pushed away. When you get what you want, interest disappears.
Formal-role
Communication in terms of regulations on content and means of communication. Instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, they make do with knowledge of his social role.
Spiritual
Interpersonal communication (confidential-informal) between friends. You can touch on any topic, you don’t have to use words, your friend will understand you by facial expression, movements, and intonation. Communication is possible when the interlocutors know each other’s personalities, interests, beliefs, attitudes towards certain problems, and it is possible to anticipate reactions.
Manipulative
Aimed at extracting benefits from the interlocutor using various techniques (flattery, intimidation, “showing off”, deception, demonstration of kindness) depending on the personality characteristics of the interlocutor.
Secular
The essence of secular communication is its pointlessness: people say not what they think, but what is supposed to be said in such situations; This is closed communication, because people’s points of view on this or that issue do not matter and the nature of communication is not determined.
Business
The personality, character, age, and mood of the interlocutor are taken into account, but the interests of the case are more significant than possible personal differences.
Be able to communicate- means understanding people and building relationships with them based on this knowledge.
Ability to communicate includes understanding and mastery of procedures such as:
- Awareness or formation of the need for communication.
- Orientation to the goals and situation of communication.
- Orientation in the personality of the interlocutor.
- Planning the content of the message.
- Choice of means and methods of communication.
- Perception and assessment of the interlocutor's reaction.
- Adjusting the direction, style and methods of communication.
The skills that make up the communication procedure are called “social intelligence”, “practical-psychological intelligence”, “communicative competence”, “communication skills”.
Communication = communication + relationship + interaction.
Types of communication
The nature of communication is the types of communication. The subject focus of communication is the types of communication.
Types of communication are differences in communication according to its nature, that is, according to the specific mental state and mood of the participants in the communicative act; record relatively stable features.
Typological types of communication are paired and at the same time alternative in nature.
- business and gaming;
- impersonal-role and interpersonal;
- spiritual and utilitarian;
- traditional and innovative.
| Business | Gaming |
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| role-playing | interpersonal |
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| traditional | innovative |
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Types of communication
Types of communication are determined by subject orientation. There are political, religious, scientific, economic, etc.
Political communication, the criterion of truth of which is passion and excitement of struggle, is characterized by a variety of forms and scales, dynamism, severity, the ability to outgrow and break the established framework of relationships, traditions, and institutions. It is characterized by the energy of confrontation, rebellion and intransigence.
Religious communication takes place within the framework of established traditional rituals and canons; there is a spirit of humility and peace; the criterion of truth is faith.
At scientific communication is dominated by the spirit of reason and the desire for truth, comprehension of the essence of the surrounding world; the criterion of truth is arguments and evidence.
IN economic In communication, play and calculation, risk and deliberation, foresight and excitement, cold reason and the desire for possession and wealth prevail.
It is necessary to distinguish the specifics of communication according to the criterion of its scale: from interpersonal to group, collective and mass.
One of the forms of satisfying people’s needs for direct emotional contact, mutual understanding and empathy with each other is the so-called microcommunication, or predominantly interpersonal communication “face to face”. Options for microcommunication - dyad, triad, small group not exceeding 10-12 people.
The basis of such communication is a community of interests, their moral value, but a small group can be the bearer of both interpersonal and impersonal relationships, even in long-term relationships (love, friendship).
Communication states
In contrast to the typology of communication, which records its relatively stable features, as well as its specific variants, determined by the objective orientation of people’s communicative behavior, the state of communication allows us to talk about its properties that bear the stamp of situationality. States and changes in communication states are associated mainly with one or another specific situation of human life.
The main criterion for differentiating states of communication is the concept of its normality or unusualness. Commonality is synonymous with normativity or generally accepted behavior. A deviation from the ordinary can be in the direction of creativity, festivity, originality or anomalousness of human communication.
Festive communication is characterized by an upbeat mood, in contrast to an everyday, more even mood.
Communication between a political leader or artist and a mass audience is also unusual; a special intensity and tension is created by the lecturer during communication with the audience.
The athlete’s state during contact with a partner, opponent, or spectators is also unusual. The exaltation of sports fans, who infect the athletes with their mood, is also indicative. Moreover, the effect of such influence can highly stimulate the success of the performer, especially when the audience at the stadium unanimously encourages the favorite by shouting his name. In this case, several psychological factors operate at once, mutually reinforcing each other. On the one hand, the effect of mental infection transmitted from the mass to the individual, on the other hand, the special significance of the stimulating influence of the name on a person.
Among the features of the state of mass communication at the stadium is the inevitable polarization of emotions and reactions of spectators who root for the success of victory or defeat of different sports teams. This can give rise to emotional confrontation and even major conflicts between different groups of fans. Impact can both stimulate success and provoke failure.
In other words, the state of human communication - elevated or mundane, excited or depressed, stimulating or disorienting (for example, panic) - is not only its essential qualitative characteristics, but also a factor in its change, functioning and development.
Subject and object of communication
An elementary condition for communication is the presence of individuals who are able to establish some kind of contact with each other. Each of them can be an object or subject of communication. A person can simultaneously act in both roles; in this case, it is not the personal qualities of the individual and not the nature of his relationship to his partner that are recorded, but the difference in the cross-sections of communication from the point of view of the observer and researcher of this process. As a subject, an individual knows his partner and at the same time he himself is an object of knowledge for the other.
But we can consider the concepts of “subject” and “object” in another plane: in the plane of the relationship of communicating people to each other. In the broad sense of the word, a subject is understood as individuals who actively participate in communication and treat another participant in communication as an interesting and significant, equal partner, and not a means of satisfying their needs and interests. Then communication is functional and role-based. The object of communication can be a person, nature, the animal world, or the material environment. But these objects can also act as subjects if the attitude towards them is emotionally charged.
Excellence Factor
People entering into communication are not equal in social status, life experience, intellectual potential, etc., and therefore errors of inequality are possible. When we meet a person who is superior to us in some important parameter, we evaluate him more positively than if he were equal to us. If we surpass him in something, then we underestimate such a person. Moreover, superiority is recorded for one factor, and overestimation (underestimation) is recorded for many. This scheme only works for very significant inequalities.
Signs of superiority are determined :
- by a person’s clothing, his appearance (glasses, hairstyle, jewelry, car, office decoration, etc.);
- a person’s behavior (how he sits, walks, talks, where he looks, etc.).
These elements serve as signs of group membership both for the person himself and for those around him.
Attractiveness factor
Under its influence, some qualities are overestimated or underestimated by other people. If we like a person externally, then we tend to consider him more intelligent and interesting. But at different times different things were considered attractive, different nations their own canons of beauty, that is, attractiveness is social in nature. A sign of attractiveness is a person's efforts to appear socially approved. Attractiveness- the degree of approximation to the type of appearance that is maximally approved by the group to which we belong.
Factor of attitude towards us
People who treat us well are valued higher than those who treat us poorly. A sign of attitude towards us, triggering the corresponding scheme of perception, is everything that indicates agreement or disagreement with us. The closer someone else's opinion is to your own, the higher that person is rated. Conversely, the higher a person is rated, the greater the similarity of his views with his own is expected.
IN constant communication It becomes important to have a deeper and more objective understanding of the partner – his current emotional state, intentions, and the dynamics of his attitude towards us. Psychological mechanisms of perception and understanding in interpersonal communication are identification, empathy and reflection.
Identification (assimilation) is the ability to put oneself in the place of another person and determine how he would act in similar situations.
Empathy is understanding at the level of feelings, the desire to respond emotionally to the problems of another person. The situation of another person is not so much thought through as felt. Such an understanding is possible for only a few, since it is a heavy burden for the psyche.
The process of understanding each other is mediated by the process of reflection. Reflection is the individual’s awareness of how he is perceived by his communication partner. This is no longer just knowledge of the other, but knowledge of how the other understands me, i.e., a kind of double process of mirroring each other. There are two subjects of communication: A And B. We can distinguish four positions of each of the subjects of communication:
- A what he is like in himself;
- A how he sees himself;
- A how he sees him IN;
- A how he sees his image in his mind IN.
QUESTION No. 13 FACTORS THAT HINDER THE CORRECT PERCEPTION OF PEOPLE
Social psychologists have identified factors that interfere with correctly perceiving and evaluating people:
1. The presence of predetermined attitudes, assessments, and beliefs that the observer has long before the process of perceiving and evaluating another person actually begins.
2. The presence of already formed stereotypes, according to which the observed people belong in advance to a certain category and an attitude is formed that directs attention to the search for traits associated with it.
3. The desire to make premature conclusions about the personality of the person being assessed before comprehensive and reliable information has been received about him. Some people, for example, have a “ready” judgment about a person immediately after meeting or seeing him for the first time.
4. The unconscious structuring of another person’s personality is manifested in the fact that strictly defined personal qualities are logically combined into a holistic image, and then any concept that does not fit into this image is discarded.
5. The “halo” effect manifests itself in the fact that the initial attitude towards one particular party
personality is transferred to the entire image of a person, and then general impression about a person - to assess his individual qualities.
6. The effect of “projection” is manifested in the fact that, by analogy with oneself, one’s own qualities and emotional states are ascribed to another person.
7. The “primacy effect” manifests itself in the fact that the first information heard or seen about a person
or event is very significant, capable of influencing all subsequent attitudes towards this person. And even if later you receive information that will refute the primary information, you will still remember and take into account the primary information.
8. Lack of desire and habit of listening to the opinions of other people, the desire to rely on one’s own impression of a person, and to defend this impression.
9. Absence of changes in a person’s perceptions and assessments that occur over time due to natural reasons. Once expressed, judgments and opinions about a person do not change, despite the fact that new information about him accumulates.
10. The “latest information effect” is that if you receive negative recent information about a person, this information can erase all previous opinions about that person.
The desire to find an explanation for human behavior (causal attribution) is included in the system of patterns that influence people’s understanding of each other:
events that are often repeated and accompany the observed phenomenon, preceding it, are usually considered as its possible reasons;
if the act that we want to explain is unusual and was preceded by some unique event, then we are inclined to consider this event to be the main reason for the committed act;
an incorrect explanation of people’s actions occurs when there are many different, equally probable possibilities for their interpretation and the person offering his explanation is free to choose the option that suits him;
the fundamental attribution error is manifested in the tendency of observers to underestimate situational and overestimate dispositional influences on the behavior of others, in the tendency to believe that behavior corresponds to dispositions;
culture also influences attribution error.
Western scientists tend to believe that people, not situations, cause events. But Hindus in India are less likely than Americans to interpret behavior in dispositional terms; rather, they are more likely to give higher value situations.
People's perceptions are influenced by stereotypes - habitual simplified ideas about other groups of people about whom there is scant information and attitudes. An attitude is a person’s unconscious readiness to habitually perceive and evaluate certain people and react in a certain, pre-formed way without a full analysis of a specific situation.
Barriers of personality and community
1. The mental state of the individual is inadequate to the requirements of the current situation (tension, euphoria). The reasons may be the personality traits of the individual.
2. A person belongs to a community that is closed to other communities; in this case, such a feature will be inherent in many individuals of this community.
The following are differentiated by type of activity: activity barriers:
- communicative and cognitive;
- labor and management;
- reactive and creative;
- economic and political;
- legal and spiritual and moral.
Barriers to mutual understanding arise at different stages of relationships. Sometimes the appearance of moral or emotional barriers that prevent normal human contacts is preceded by years of acquaintance or close relationships. But there is one barrier that grows, as a rule, at the first contact - this aesthetic barrier.
The first impression of a person is formed primarily by his appearance, demeanor, clothing style. Of course, they “show you off based on your mind,” but you still meet them “on your clothes.” Appearance has always determined a lot in relation to a person, especially among unfamiliar people. Already in childhood, starting from 4 years old, beautiful appearance provides boys and girls with higher popularity among their peers. This trend continues in mature age. When participants in a psychological experiment were asked to evaluate personal qualities from photographs and predict the fate of those depicted in the photographs, it turned out that the more beautiful subjects were more often attributed positive qualities and a happy fate.
In the studies of L.Ya. Gozman discovered the effect of beauty irradiation: a man’s physical attractiveness depended significantly on the appearance of the woman in whose company he constantly appeared. It turns out that there is a certain benefit from communicating with outwardly attractive people - next to them, you yourself may be rated higher. But it is precisely in this pragmatic orientation that lies hidden for people endowed with extraordinary external data the danger of a false understanding of the interest of others in communicating with them. They can easily mistake selfish interest for human interest.
If relationships between people were limited only to superficial contacts, then it could be argued that beauty is the best remedy achieving success in communication. But research shows that the physical attractiveness of spouses does not affect relationships in family life and on marital stability. It is curious that people are more lenient towards the misdeeds of those whom experts rate as more attractive in appearance. But they are condemned more severely than usual if they use their external data for an immoral purpose.
Of course, the assessment of one person's appearance by another is subjective, big role clothes and cosmetics play. When verbally recreating a person’s appearance, the most significant are height, eye and hair color, as well as features of facial expressions. This is explained by the fact that we associate not only external, but also internal personal characteristics (physiognomy) with the shape, color and expression of the eyes. The philosopher A. Schopenhauer said that “the mouth expresses the thought of man, and the face expresses the thought of nature.”
Americans conducted studies where they established a connection between the color of a leader’s eyes and the characteristics of their leadership style. Chiefs from black eyes stubborn, hardy, quick-tempered when faced with difficulties, but accepting right decisions. WITH gray eyes- decisive,
but helpless when solving non-intellectual problems; with light brown– closed, achieve success when working independently; blue-eyed- self-possessed, but sentimental, monotony depresses them, they are people of mood, often angry; green-eyed- the best bosses. They are stable, have sufficient imagination, decisive, realistic, focused and patient, strict but fair, find a way out of any situation, good listeners and interlocutors.
This is, of course, interesting data, but often we quickly judge a person’s character based only on his appearance, and the first impression is often deceiving.
Intellectual barrier. American psychologist N. Tallent identified three types of intelligence:
- verbal– the ability to operate with words, symbols, numbers, ideas, logical arguments;
- mechanical– the ability to perceive and understand the connections of physical forces and elements of mechanisms in practical situations, to quickly grasp the principles of machine operations;
- social– the ability to understand the states of other people and anticipate the development of various social situations. Social intelligence, according to Tallent, is manifested in a sense of tact, the ability to gain the favor of other people and create a favorable atmosphere in relationships with them. Low level The development of this type of intelligence causes constant manifestations of tactlessness, difficulties in adapting to the social environment, communication problems and loneliness.
A high level of social intelligence is essential for leaders: it is the cornerstone of human understanding. Its lack often gives rise to a paradoxical situation when the majority of the audience may consider a very erudite and thoughtful speaker with a pronounced verbal intelligence to be a bore and a confusion. This happens because a person with a highly developed theoretic mind is not able to take into account the uneven development of this type of intelligence in other people.
Half of adults do not grasp the meaning of spoken phrases if they contain more than 13 words, and children under seven years old - no more than 8 words. Parents' notations are ineffective, since children are not able to appreciate their thoroughness and depth.
Intellectual barriers can also arise as a result of different speeds of intellectual processes among people entering into communication. Slow-witted people are often perceived as people who are not intellectually developed enough. Few people have the patience to wait for the fruits of their long thoughts, and yet they simply do not have enough time, measured by nature, to shock the world with new ideas. Therefore, there is no need to rush to make an unambiguous verdict.
People not only think, but also speak at different speeds. And if a person pronounces more than 2.5 words per second, then his interlocutors cease to understand him. Slow, measured speech “a teaspoon per hour” also causes irritation.
It also happens that there is no doubt about the intellectual capabilities of the interlocutor, but a barrier arises - this is the so-called motivational barrier . It appears because the interlocutor is not interested in the ideas expressed that do not affect his own needs and do not evoke a motive that encourages understanding.
But it’s not just a lack of motivation—too much of it can also hinder understanding of other people. According to the Yerkes-Dodson law, “increasing the strength of motivation at first leads to an increase in operational efficiency, reaching the point of maximum success, and a further increase in the level of motivation leads to a noticeable decline.” For example, students who feel excessive responsibility to their parents and teachers sometimes fail exams even with good knowledge. And if a person really wants to be understood by others, he inevitably begins to worry, his thoughts are confused. His speech becomes incoherent and fragmentary, and as a result, those around him only understand that his speech was unsuccessful.
The most painful problem of motivating mutual understanding is the consumer attitude of people towards each other. When interest in things begins to prevail over interest in people, the sphere of human relationships inevitably turns into the sphere of services.
Paradoxical as it may seem, moral barriers also arise in cases where we are dealing with a person who has absolutely not violated moral standards in any way. The great wit Chamfort expressed the following thought: “Too great virtues sometimes make a person unsuitable for society: they don’t go to the market with gold bars - they need small change, especially change.”
There is another barrier - emotional . People's feelings and emotions are always on the side of those who spare no effort and time to realize goals that have individual meaning and social value. But what are emotions? And is high emotionality good or bad?
Negative emotions. The American writer W. Alger noted that “people often fill the gaps in their reason with anger.”
Unpleasant emotions weaken the ability to perceive and correctly evaluate even the most compelling and serious arguments in favor of a particular point of view. But one cannot take at face value everything that is said in an emotionally unbalanced state. A constantly suffering person seems unpleasant to us, and everything that happens to him seems deserved.
Positive emotions. It would seem that everything is different here. But a person in a state of joyful excitement decreases criticality, and this can lead to: 1) agreement with an opinion that is unacceptable under normal conditions; 2) support for a person who does not fully deserve it. Even sublime feelings can become a source of serious mistakes in mutual understanding (for example, the phenomenon of “rose-colored glasses” among lovers).
But positive emotions still have advantages, and significant ones: the speed of thought processes increases, which promotes intellectual activity; a person’s communication capabilities improve, making him a more pleasant and desirable interlocutor.
But the main thing is not the level of emotionality, but the ability to empathize - empathy – a stable personality property, the ability to experience the emotional states of another person as one’s own. This quality is difficult to cultivate, but just as difficult to destroy. Often one of the people who communicate closely has this quality, but the other does not: one sympathizes, empathizes, and the other accepts favorably, not considering it necessary to respond. The formula “they don’t get along” most often means that the limit of one person’s understanding of the other person’s misunderstanding of his experiences and interests has been reached.
There are hundreds of personality traits that can determine the nuances of a person’s character and influence mutual understanding between people, but many of them are interconnected. Therefore, groups are distinguished
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