Any person who enters into economic relations is forced to act in a certain market. The concept of market is extremely important from a marketing point of view. Although there is no single definition of marketing, the connection between this field of activity and the market is obvious. And it manifests itself in the fact that the term “marketing” itself is derived from English word"market", which translates as "market".

The word "market" is used in most different meanings. In ordinary speech, this word is used to refer to a place where some people sell and other people buy some goods. It should be noted that any other use of the word “market” is somehow based on this idea of ​​the market. However, economists use the word in a more general sense.

From this point of view, the market does not necessarily occupy any specific place in space: the market is a special sphere of relations between people who may be located next to each other or be in the most different places. And these relationships are based on numerous exchanges, in the process of which one value is exchanged for another.

From a marketing point of view, a market can be defined as a collection of individuals and organizations, each of which 1) has its own special needs; 2) has certain material resources to satisfy them and 3) is characterized by a willingness to spend these funds to satisfy needs.

The market is sometimes also called special shape organization of economic relations between people, characteristic of the economy as a whole. This is precisely the meaning that is conveyed when experts talk about a “market economy”, contrasting it with an “administrative economy”.

The understanding of the market in marketing is somewhat different from the above definition. A market in marketing is a collection of customers who are able and willing to make an exchange that will satisfy a need or enable them to do so. In other words, for marketing it is enough that we talk about the market as a collection of buyers, abstracting from the role that the enterprise itself plays in the market. Of course, this does not mean that we should not think about the consequences that our activities lead to.

Just from an acceptance standpoint. large number For meaningful decisions, it is sufficient to proceed from this slightly simplified approach.

Exchange its components and conditions. The main type of action that takes place in the market is exchange:

Let's say that a person has a need that he seeks to satisfy. To do this, he needs something - so to speak, an instrument to satisfy the need. In the case of hunger, this is food, in the case of thirst, it is water or some kind of drink. There are the following ways to obtain goods.

1. Self-sufficiency. The person produces the goods he needs himself. A natural economy is based on this principle, in which a family or clan lives in complete self-sufficiency. Self-sufficiency is less common in modern society. For example, people often cook their own food, refusing the services of restaurants and canteens.

Technological progress has made self-sufficiency almost impossible.

To clarify this, let's look at an example. In order to provide for yourself completely, modern man must be able to create televisions and other equipment; at the same time, he must create them, as they say, “from scratch,” having only metals and other materials that he must obtain himself. It is clear that this is an almost unattainable goal. If we consider that in addition to televisions, he must be able to make bricks, pipes, paper, fabric and clothing, grow plants and animals, as well as compose music and film TV shows, then it will become obvious that this is completely impossible.

2. Mastery of power. In this case, a person simply takes what he needs from another person. This action is quite natural, but unacceptable, and society punishes a person for it. It is for this reason that this method of purchasing goods should be excluded.

3. Begging. This path is chosen by many people who really cannot provide for themselves (for example, due to illness) or only feign such an inability, pretend. This path is also not possible, because if everyone begs, then a moment will come when there will be nothing to beg for. In other words, beggars are only possible where there are working people.

4. Exchange. This is perhaps the most effective way for modern society to get what is needed. An exchange involves clear rules, and if one party breaks them, the other party usually has the opportunity to restore justice.

It is clear that exchange is currently the simplest, effective way satisfaction of needs, which does not lead to violation of laws and does not humiliate human dignity. At the very least, a person can always refuse to participate in a transaction if for some reason he is not satisfied with it (an exchange that infringes on the rights of one of the parties or is based on deception is punishable by law and may be declared invalid).

Any act of buying and selling involves at least three components: 1) the seller, 2) the buyer, and 3) the value they exchange.

First, there must be a seller - a person or organization who wants to sell the product or exchange it for some other goods.

Secondly, there must be at least one buyer on the market - a person or organization who wants to purchase a product or receive it in exchange for some other value.

In addition to the desire to purchase something, the buyer must have the means to do so. As a rule, such an opportunity exists when the buyer has money.

Finally, thirdly, the seller and buyer must have some kind of value that they will exchange during the purchase and sale process. These values ​​include money and goods. Based on this, it is possible to specify the conditions that are mandatory for the exchange to take place.

Sharing is social interaction. The roles of buyer and seller are not constant: in one situation we sell something, in another we buy. Therefore, the roles of the seller and the buyer are roles that exist only within the framework of a specific act of purchase and sale.

For this reason, in marketing it is customary to say that market participants are not buyers and sellers, but people and organizations that have a wide variety of needs. In order to satisfy these needs, people and organizations act as buyers and sellers.

An exchange takes place if the parties exchange some kind of value. There is also a closer connection between the roles of buyer and seller. A person who sells something acts as a seller. However, why does he do this? The answer is simple: because he wants to earn money, which he can then spend on satisfying some of his needs.

Therefore, it would be fair to say that the seller acts in such a capacity that he can subsequently become a buyer. In the usual case, buying and selling involves the seller receiving money in exchange for the goods. However, a barter situation can also be considered as a purchase and sale, when the seller and buyer exchange without the participation of money, that is, they exchange one product for another. As a rule, this happens when participants have goods that they do not need themselves, but are needed by other market participants.

At the same time, in modern society, not a single exchange occurs without the participation of money. The whole point is that when exchanging, a person wants to get some value at a price that seems reasonable to him. Nobody wants to overpay for what they need. For this reason, even if the exchange is carried out without the participation of money, money acts as a measure of value.

The seller, knowing that he can sell a product on the market at a certain price, in a non-monetary exchange will try to get such a quantity of another product for the sale of which he will receive no less.

An exchange takes place if each party must be able to decide whether to accept or reject either party's offer. The decision to exchange must be mutual, that is, it must suit both parties.

An exchange takes place if each party evaluates the exchange as a generally acceptable solution to their problem. It is clear that no person will strive to get what he does not need; they enter into exchange only when they see a benefit in it. Moreover, if this condition is not met, then future exchanges may simply cease: why change if it still cannot satisfy needs?

IN economic theory There are a large number of characteristics by which the corresponding types of markets can be distinguished, but for marketing purposes we will be interested only in competitive types of markets, since a company builds a marketing strategy precisely with the goal of superiority over its competitors.

There are four types of competitive markets.

Pure competition market (or perfectly competitive market)

Note 1

It is worth noting that in practice this type market in pure form never occurs. For the most part, it is an abstract model that is needed for economic analysis.

Characteristics of a perfectly competitive market:

• there are no entry and exit barriers: that is, nothing prevents the seller from starting to produce and sell a certain product characteristic of a given market or from leaving this market if the sale of this product is no longer profitable for him;
• there is qualitative homogeneity of goods of the same name: there are no defective products, the product is named in accordance with its quality (butter and spread, milk and dairy product);
• all market players - both sellers and buyers - are fully informed about all prices and offers on the market at the moment.

Pure monopoly market

Characterized by the only seller of the product. Since there is only one manufacturer and the volume of supply depends only on him, he can set any price for his product. In this case, the monopolist dictates not only the quantity of goods offered, but also its quality, because The buyer does not have the opportunity to choose analogues of this product.

Monopolies are usually formed due to the company's possession of a limited resource or patent, due to the displacement/absorption of competitors, collusion of companies (the creation of cartels, syndicates or trusts based on an agreement on prices, sales markets, etc.), due to the official declaration of a monopoly in certain industries (mainly the state monopoly on energy resources: electricity, oil, etc., where significant financial investments are required to operate)

Note 2

A type of monopoly is monopsony - this is a market in which there is one large seller who dictates price and quality conditions smaller sellers.

Oligopolistic market

Such a market is divided between several large manufacturers who constantly exist on the market and whose number practically does not change over time.

A striking example of an oligopoly market is the market for aircraft manufacturers.

Market of monopolistic competition

This market is described as a multitude of sellers who sell diverse and competing products. The barriers to entry are not very high here. The remark “monopolistic” suggests that each of the goods, although similar to the others, has its own distinctive features.

An example is the market medicines: there are many players in the market, barriers to entry are insignificant, but the products differ from each other in properties, composition, side effects etc.

Market monopolistic competition most beneficial for consumers, since buyers receive a number of advantages: firstly, manufacturers are trying to create more attractive and interesting offers for the buyer in order to increase their market share, secondly, due to competition, the quantity and quality of goods is constantly increasing and, in -third, the presence of several players in the market minimizes the possibility of the formation of a monopoly or, for example, price collusion.

In the modern world, the market has become one of the important objects of analysis, as in economics, economic sociology, and marketing. The market is considered the most ingenious system created by society ever.

Its study began from the moment it appeared, but despite such a long period of existence, thanks to its dynamics and liveliness of this phenomenon, the study continues now in the 21st century.

The concept of market has evolved over time, but there are still questions about the adequate definition of the market. Researchers identify the following conceptual ideas about the market: the market as a place, as an exchange mechanism, a process, a segment.

In this regard, several definitions of the market can be given. Firstly, “the market is an exchange organized according to the laws of commodity production and circulation, a set of commodity exchange relations.” The market is a mechanism for interaction between buyers and sellers, in other words, the relationship between supply and demand. The market is a sphere of exchange within a country and between countries, connecting producers and consumers of products.

To gain a deeper understanding of the market phenomenon, it is necessary to consider its place in the entire system social production, which includes four spheres economic activity: production, distribution, exchange, consumption. Although the final, natural goal of economic life is consumption, the most important sphere of the economy is production, and without its development there can be no market, because production gives rise to a commodity mass.

The basis of all changes in economic sectors lies in production; this is especially important for the formation of market relations where they do not yet exist. If you start with the reformation of circulation and do not first achieve major production results, then no market will arise.

Between production and consumption there are also other areas. Production is followed by distribution - a system that determines who will receive the results of production and who will become the owner of the products produced. Distribution plays a huge role in folding social relations and determining the financial situation of sections of society. It is worth noting that the efficiency of the production process depends on the distribution of labor results. And despite the fact that exchange occupies third place in the hierarchy of economic spheres, it has a strong opposite effect on production.

The sphere of exchange plays a huge role in the entire system of social economy, therefore the market as a set of commodity exchange relations has acquired extreme importance in the process historical development. On one side we may find a single producer dominating the market, on the other we find thousands of firms, each supplying an insignificant part of the market output. Between these sides lies an almost limitless variety of market structures.

In the marketing literature, the explanation of the market as an exchange mechanism or as a group of consumers has received the most attention. In the 1960s Certain attempts were made to conduct an in-depth analysis of the concept of “market”, but by the end of the twentieth century. Discussions on this topic have become less intense. The activity of developing and defining the term “market” in modern marketing literature is gradually fading away; conceptual ideas about the market have strengthened and provide loci for considering this phenomenon.

One of the old concepts is the market as a place, in this case the market is a physical place, a geographical point where supply and demand meet, exchange occurs, or, in a similar sense, a market is a place where people/goods come together to make transactions. exchange. This definition market is the oldest and most often not used in scientific works in marketing, but in practice and marketing research it occurs often.

Understanding the market as an exchange mechanism viewed through the prism of exchange mechanisms is especially relevant for modern B2B marketing literature. Following this logic, a company has several ways to organize its economic exchanges with various parties to interaction. “In other words, it is suggested that there are several mechanisms of exchange, which at the same time are various types markets."

In this approach, the term market is used to describe a situation where competitive market forces determine the terms of trade between buyers and sellers. Within the framework of this understanding, the market can be considered as a situation close to the theory of ideal markets, where exchanges between buyers and sellers are carried out as discrete acts.

Other types of economic exchange situations are more relational exchanges with established long-term relationships between sellers and buyers. This approach describes the market as business relations and the networks built on such relationships.

Thus, the totality various mechanisms exchange shows that the term market describes exchange processes. On the other hand, more relational exchanges are described as occurring within business networks and are therefore seen as exchange relationships between multiple firms.

“The third way to define the term market is to understand it as a process.” This approach to definition has been widely used for many decades within the framework of economic science. The main attention was paid to such issues as the analysis of entrepreneurs as market participants, consumer behavior, price equilibrium, etc. As for marketing literature, the understanding of the market as a process that includes exchanges between market participants was reflected in it. Already since the 1960s, this approach can be found in the works of marketing researchers. Within the marketing locus, the market is described as the process of equalizing supply and demand through systematic and decentralized exchanges.

This approach to defining the market is broader than the two described above; viewing the market as a process involves accepting it as an incentive, as information system or even a coordination mechanism.

In modern marketing literature, the understanding of the market as a segment determines the current situation. “In this understanding, markets appear as people, subsequently grouped to obtain market segments, with various authors offering all sorts of reasons and algorithms for such partitioning.”

By using differentiating variables, researchers obtain different classifications of market segments.

One of the most famous classic works is the work of J. Scissors, devoted to the analysis of the essence of markets from the perspective of the idea of ​​markets as a group of people.

According to the author, traditionally the market is identified with some general class goods. Here we mean food markets related to those individuals who bought this type goods in the past. For convenience, all buyers are divided into segments based on similar characteristics.

The use of a commodity market definition is based on one very important hypothesis, which is not always confirmed. So, people who buy a certain product in the future will be similar to people who buy that product in the present.

It is worth noting that customers tend to repeat purchases of the same product if their needs have been adequately met. So, this assumption is usually true, but it also happens that new consumers differ from existing ones.

Provided that the manufacturer will attract new consumers to its products, in this case these people may have some new traits. In this case, instead of the term market, Scissors suggests using the term potential buyers in relation to such buyers. By definition, potential buyers are

Once the manufacturer has determined the class of products, it is necessary to begin to classify consumers according to some set of parameters, such as market size, geographical location consumers, demographic characteristics of consumers, socio-psychological characteristics of consumers, reasons for making purchases, etc.

Consideration of the market as segments is often used today; the main proponent of this approach can be considered F. Kotler, in whose understanding the market is a set of existing and potential buyers of a product.

Situations arise when the market needs to be defined differently than on the basis of the characteristics of a class of goods. A more modern concept is to define the market in terms of consumer needs. In the famous article “Marketing Myopia,” author T. Levitt says that the market consists of people who have certain needs. At ideal conditions A manufacturer introduces a new product to the market if it can recognize these needs.

The choice of market is based on various aspects of its structuring. In marketing classification commodity markets carried out using a wide range of features. We note only the most important of them, which are of paramount importance for the purposes of practical use.

1. Depending on the relationship between supply and demand, they distinguish;

1) seller's market

2) buyer's market.

Seller's Market occurs when demand significantly exceeds supply. At the same time, sales do not present any particular difficulties for the seller. In conditions of excess demand (shortage), goods will still be sold. It is not advisable for him to engage in any marketing activities, since this will only mean additional costs.

R buyer's market. It is possible if supply exceeds demand. In this case, it is no longer the seller who dictates his terms, but the buyer.

A buyer's market is characterized by competition. This forces the seller to make significant efforts to sell his goods. In a buyer's market, the need to study demand and consumer behavior becomes paramount.

2. From the point of view of spatial characteristics (territorial coverage), markets are distinguished:

1) local (local)

2) regional (within the country)

3) national

4) regional for a group of countries (for example, North America, Latin America, Western Europe, CIS countries, Baltic countries, etc.)

5) world

The problem of territorial coverage of the market is solved by the enterprise depending on its financial condition and features of the product offered. Great value also has the appropriate infrastructure. Moving from one market level to another is a form of diversification and is usually carried out in a highly competitive environment.

3. By the nature of the final use of the product:

1) consumer goods market

2) market for industrial goods

The consumer goods market is differentiated by:

- types(for example, food and non-food),

- product groups(for example, shoes, clothing, electrical household goods, etc.),

- product subgroups(for example, the market for leather, rubber, felted shoes), etc.

The specificity of the consumer goods market is due to the fact that they are aimed at many individual consumers. That's why marketing research aimed at studying their behavior, tastes, requests and preferences.

Characteristic feature industrial goods(raw materials, semi-finished products, equipment, etc.) is their close connection with production process. The demand for them is targeted (or secondary), which arises as a consequence of the demand for consumer goods and is subject to the factor of economic feasibility.

The number of consumers of industrial goods is limited. They, as a rule, make large purchases, often influencing the production of products (adapting them to their needs), the delivery procedure, the complex additional services. Therefore, special importance in marketing research of such markets is given to the study of the relationships between potential buyers and producers of goods.

Features of the goods market industrial use:

1. There are fewer buyers in the industrial goods market.

2. Few buyers are larger.

3. Buyers are often concentrated geographically.

4. The demand for industrial goods is determined by the demand for consumer goods.

5. Demand for industrial goods is inelastic.

6. The demand for industrial goods is changing dramatically.

7. Buyers in the market for industrial and technical products are professionals.

8. In terms of the size of the product range and monetary turnover, the market for industrial goods exceeds the market for consumer goods.

The main sectors of activity that make up the market for industrial goods are agriculture, industry, construction, transport, communications, services.

Decoding features

1. There are fewer buyers on it. A retailer of industrial goods typically deals with a much smaller number of buyers.

For example, a company can sell tires to both industry and the general consumer. In the market for goods for industrial needs, it can receive an order from one of several largest automobile manufacturing enterprises - from AvtoVAZ JSC or AZLK. And when selling spare tires to a wide consumer, the company’s potential market is the owners of tens of millions of cars used in Russia.

2. Few buyers are larger. Even in industries with many manufacturers, the bulk of purchasing typically comes from just a few large buyers. In industries such as gas and oil production, automobile production, and aircraft engines, the majority of total production is accounted for by a few manufacturers. It is they who will purchase the bulk of supplies for the industry.

3. Buyers are concentrated geographically. The majority of all buyers of industrial goods in the country are concentrated in the Central, Ural, Volga and West Siberian economic regions. In industries such as the oil and gas industry, geographic concentration is even more pronounced. Most agricultural products come from several economic regions of the country. Concentration of production helps reduce costs. Trends in geographic concentration need to be monitored.

4. The demand for industrial goods is determined by the demand for consumer goods. If the demand for consumer goods weakens, the demand for all industrial goods used in the production process will also decline.

5. The demand for industrial goods is changing dramatically. Demand for industrial goods and services typically changes faster than for consumer goods and services. This is especially true in relation to the demand for new production equipment. An increase in demand for consumer goods can lead to an immeasurably greater increase in demand for machinery and equipment necessary to produce additional quantities of consumer goods, and vice versa.

6. Buyers of industrial goods are professionals. Products for industrial needs are purchased by professionally trained agents who spend their entire working lives learning how to purchase in the most efficient manner. The general consumer is less sophisticated in the art of shopping. The more complex the nature of procurement for production needs, the greater the likelihood that a number of persons will participate in the decision process. The acquisition of the most important items is usually handled by special purchasing committees, which include technical experts and representatives of senior management. Firms offering industrial goods must attract well-trained salespeople. The main sales method is personal selling.

Services market is one of the most promising and covers wide range types of activities (transport, tourism, insurance, lending, education, etc.).

Common things that unite various types labor activity for the provision of services is the production of such use values ​​that predominantly do not acquire a materialized form.

4) Depending on the needs that determine the demand for the relevant goods, markets can be

1) retail and

2) wholesale.

Retail (consumer) market represents a market of buyers purchasing goods for personal (family, home) use. It is heterogeneous: people here differ in income, level of consumption, social status, age, nationality, cultural customs, etc. population groups.

Accordingly, each of these groups has its own requests, requirements for goods (their quality, price, etc.), reaction to the appearance of a certain product, advertising. Therefore, an enterprise must determine the feasibility of working with each group of market consumers that it intends to serve.

Wholesale market(enterprise market) is a market of organizations purchasing goods for their further use in the production process, resale or redistribution. It is characterized by a relatively small number of operating entities, the predominance of large purchases and a significant focus on consumer market.

5. From a point of view organizational structure.

It is determined by different trading conditions and the nature of the relationship between sellers and buyers, which leads to the division of markets into

1) closed and

2) open.

Closed market- this is a market in which sellers and buyers are bound by non-commercial relations, legal and administrative dependence, financial control, agreements on specialization and cooperation, contractual relations (for example, trade and economic, credit agreements) that do not have a clearly commercial nature. In such a market, various measures and forms of regulation prevail, and prices remain relatively stable.

Open market– sphere of ordinary commercial activities, where the circle of independent sellers and buyers is unlimited. The absence of non-commercial ties between sellers and buyers predetermines the relative independence of relations between them. Usually short-term commercial transactions are concluded. An open market is characterized by frequent and sharp price fluctuations.

6. To organize marketing activities, it is important to classify markets according to their qualitative structure, which is based on the stratification of buyers:

Whole market

Potential market

For a clearer and more visual idea of ​​it, let’s turn to the figure.

Rice. Qualitative market structure:

a – the entire market

b – potential market

Potential market constitutes 10% of the population here (country, region, city, etc.). It consists of buyers who show interest in purchasing goods. Meanwhile, desire alone is not enough; you must have the means to purchase. Paying customers must have access to products that satisfy their needs.

Valid market - if the listed conditions are met. From among its buyers, one should exclude those who, for one reason or another (legislative restrictions, health conditions, etc.) do not realize their interest in a qualified market.

Qualified Market in our example it is 20% of the potential market or 50% of the actual market.

Market served by the enterprise constitute 10% of buyers in the potential market, who have the opportunity to make a choice from the entire variety of products offered, including by competitors.

The developed market is formed by buyers, giving preference to goods of this enterprise. In our example, they make up only 5% of the potential market and 50% of the served one.

This classification is useful for marketing planning. If an enterprise is not satisfied with the sales volume, it considers the prospects and chooses tools to expand the market, primarily at the expense of the part it serves.

7. From the point of view of the features and content of marketing activities, the following markets are distinguished:

1) target, i.e. market to which it is aimed marketing activities enterprise based on its goals

2) barren, i.e. having no prospects for selling certain goods

3) main, i.e. the market where the bulk of the company's goods are sold

4) additional, which ensures the sale of a certain volume of goods

5) growing. those. having real opportunities to increase sales volumes

6) layered, characterized by instability of commercial operations.

8. For entities entering into exchange:

1) consumer market

2) manufacturers

3) intermediate sellers

4) government agencies

1. consumer market - individuals and households consume goods for personal use;

2. producer market - organizations purchasing goods and services for use in the production process;

3. market of intermediate sellers - a set of individuals and organizations purchasing goods for resale or renting them to other consumers for a profit.

The intermediate seller market includes

Firms wholesale trade

Retail trade.

4. government market - government organizations that purchase goods and services for use or resale to those in need.

Government market constitute organizations of the federal government, regional governments, and local authorities that purchase or lease goods they need to perform their basic functions of exercising power.

Thus, Carrying out classification according to certain criteria allows us to deepen marketing research of a specific product market in order to determine the conditions under which the most complete satisfaction of demand for goods is ensured and the prerequisites are created for their effective sales. In accordance with this, the primary task of studying the market is to assess its conditions.

Question 2. Types of consumers

The main figure in business is the consumer. Understanding who the consumer is and who the consumer is for the enterprise is an important issue for developing the entire marketing program.

The consumer does not actually need the product or service of the enterprise, the consumer needs to solve the problems facing him and satisfy his needs.

The consumer wants business professionals to solve his problems and satisfy his desires. The modern consumer also has new desires, not only to solve a problem with the help of goods and services of the enterprise, but the process of how this will happen is also important to him. For the consumer, the accessibility of the enterprise for contacts, the desire to communicate, the convenience of the process of purchasing goods and services, and the additional benefits that the enterprise can provide in this process are important.

Types of consumers

Consumers are heterogeneous in their characteristics. The consumer can be classified by highlighting various characteristics, for example, by areas of use of the product, psychological characteristics, relation to price, etc.

Table 1.

Types of consumers by direction of use of goods

Type	Characteristic
Individual consumers	People who use material goods and services for the reproduction of life, for work or social activities, to ensure a certain style and way of life and spiritual culture.
Mass consumers ( legal entities)	Organizations, institutions, companies, associations, etc., using material goods and services for their professional activity(but not for production or trade).
Industrial consumers	Manufacturing enterprises, firms, cooperatives, trading enterprises and service enterprises that use material goods and production services for production (including trade) purposes.

Table 2. Types of consumers according to psychological characteristics

Type	Characteristic
Driven by need	those trying to survive; trying to keep their jobs. People are poor; the basic need to somehow ensure one’s daily existence.
Integrated Personalities	Psychologically stable, self-asserted middle-aged people, well-educated, financially secure, with a sense of proportion, active in charity.
Extroverts	stable, conservative (workers and pensioners); imitators (average education and good income); those who have reached a high position in society (leaders in business, government).
Introverts	egocentrists (young, impulsive, often changeable); people who love life (active, have a good income, education); who recognize themselves as members of society (are interested in others, the future, personal growth, have a decent income).

Table 3. Types of consumers in relation to price

The identified type of consumer in the company’s target market allows its marketing service to develop tools for influencing the buyer, adapted to his characteristic features and behavior, which generally works to increase sales levels.

The consumers on the market are:

1. end consumers these are individuals (individual consumers), families (small communities based on marriage or consanguinity), households (one or more families united by a common household);

End consumers purchase goods and services for personal use.

2. organizations (enterprises) - consumers- This industrial enterprises And various organizations purchase goods and services for the production of commercial products and resale them to other consumers.

manufacturing enterprises,

wholesale enterprises

retail,

government and other non-profit institutions.

Manufacturing enterprises-consumers- a set of persons and organizations purchasing goods and services for industrial and technical purposes, which are used in the production of other goods or services, sold, leased, supplied to other consumers.

Wholesale trade intermediaries buy large quantities of industrial and consumer goods for wholesale distribution, they require premises, vehicles, insurance services, etc.

Retailers purchase goods from manufacturing enterprises and wholesalers for resale to end consumers. They need retail space and equipment, means of advertising and display of goods.

Intermediate sellers purchase both goods for resale and goods and services necessary for the smooth functioning of their own businesses.

Procurement for themselves is carried out by intermediate sellers in the role of producers.

Resellers deal in a huge variety of goods for resale, with the exception of a few varieties sold directly by manufacturers to end consumers.

Such goods as heavy engineering products, complex equipment, and custom-made products do not fall into the hands of intermediate sellers.

State enterprises acquire a variety of goods and services for the activities of government sectors of the economy (military, transport, communications, environmental, etc.), as well as for the formation of the material and technical base of ministries and departments, government and municipal institutions.

Question 3. Buying behavior in the consumer market.

Buying behavior - the behavior exhibited by buyers in the process of searching, selecting, purchasing, using, evaluating and disposing of products, services and ideas that can satisfy the needs of buyers.

Purchasing behavior of an individual consumer- this is the behavior of the final consumer purchasing goods and services for personal consumption.

Every day, consumers make many decisions about what to buy. Majority large companies explore the purchasing decision process to find out what, where, how and why consumers buy.

A number of principles of consumer analysis are identified. First of all, studying applied behavioral sciences is a good way to understand consumer behavior. Consumer behavior is a complex multifaceted process and to study it it is necessary to use an interdisciplinary approach - techniques and methods used in psychology and sociology. Research can be conducted using various methods of observing behavior (experiments, the use of sociological surveys, questionnaires and interviews, etc.). It is also advisable to study individual stages of the purchasing decision-making process.

F. Kotler suggests asking four questions to classify the market in question to one class or another:

• 1) what is bought on the market, i.e. item of purchase?
• 2) why it is bought, i.e. target?
• 3) what he buys, i.e. subject of purchase?
• 4) how is it bought? .

Table 1. Market classification

Criteria	Market classification
on the use of goods	consumer market (enterprise market, industry market)
by buyer behavior	convenient (active), special (with features) market, low distress market, high distress market
By physical properties goods	market for perishable goods, market for durable goods
by social status	Luxury goods market, essential goods market
by demographics	market by age (gender), family size, education, profession, social class, religion
geographically	regional, national, market of developed countries, market developing countries etc.
by type of raw material	commodity markets

From Table 1 it follows that the market consists of a number of mandatory elements (each of these elements characterizes one side of the market, together they describe its entire complex).

The consumer market is the market for goods and services purchased or rented individuals or by households for personal (non-commercial) consumption.

The enterprise market is divided into three types:

• 1) market for industrial goods, or production market;
• 2) market of intermediate sellers;
• 3) government market.

The consumer market can be classified either by buyer characteristics or by product type.

Classification according to buyer characteristics allows for various criteria. For example, population; region, national borders, urban, rural areas, a separate area of ​​the city; a certain number of families, family size; age categories and gender; professional, racial characteristics, national origin; social clans, religious groups, belonging to socio-economic groups, etc.

Classification by product type is carried out depending on the type and purpose of the goods. For example, markets for food products, textiles and clothing, household goods, furniture, durable goods, etc.

The specificity of the consumer goods market is due to the fact that they are aimed at many individual consumers. Therefore, marketing research is aimed at studying their behavior, tastes, demands and preferences.

A characteristic feature of industrial goods (raw materials, semi-finished products, equipment, etc.) is their close connection with the production process. The demand for them is targeted (or secondary), which arises as a consequence of the demand for consumer goods and is subject to the factor of economic feasibility.

The number of consumers of industrial goods is limited. They, as a rule, make large purchases, often influencing the production of products (adapting them to their needs), the delivery procedure, and a range of additional services. Therefore, special importance in marketing research of such markets is given to the study of the relationships between potential buyers and producers of goods. From the point of view of spatial characteristics (territorial coverage), markets are distinguished:

• 1) local (local);
• 2) regional (within the country);
• 3) national;
• 4) regional for a group of countries (for example, North America, Latin America, Western Europe, CIS countries, Baltics, etc.);
• 5) global.

Depending on the relationship between supply and demand, a seller's market and a buyer's market are distinguished.

A seller's market occurs when demand significantly exceeds supply. At the same time, sales do not present any particular difficulties for the seller. In conditions of excess demand (shortage), goods will still be sold. It is not advisable for him to engage in any marketing activities, since this will only mean additional costs.

The situation in the buyer's market is completely different. It is possible if supply exceeds demand. In this case, it is no longer the seller who dictates his terms, but the buyer.

A buyer's market is characterized by competition. This forces the seller to make significant efforts to sell his goods. In a buyer's market, the need to study demand and consumer behavior becomes paramount.

The services market is one of the most promising and covers a wide range of activities (transport, tourism, insurance, lending, education, etc.). The common thing that unites various types of labor activity in the provision of services is the production of such use values ​​that predominantly do not acquire a materialized form.

Depending on the needs that determine the demand for the relevant goods, markets can be retail and wholesale.

The retail (consumer) market is a market of buyers purchasing goods for personal (family, home) use. It is heterogeneous: people here differ in income, level of consumption, social status, age, nationality, cultural customs, etc. population groups.

Accordingly, each of these groups has its own requests, requirements for goods (their quality, price, etc.), reaction to the appearance of a certain product, advertising. Therefore, an enterprise must determine the feasibility of working with each group of market consumers that it intends to serve.

The wholesale market (enterprise market) is a market of organizations purchasing goods for their further use in the production process, resale or redistribution. It is characterized by a relatively small number of operating entities, the predominance of large purchases and a significant focus on the consumer market.

The classification of markets in terms of organizational structure is of fundamental importance. It is determined by different trading conditions and the nature of the relationship between sellers and buyers, which determines the division of markets into closed and open.

A closed market is a market in which sellers and buyers are bound by non-commercial relations, legal and administrative dependence, financial control, agreements on specialization and cooperation, contractual relations (for example, trade and economic, loan agreements) that do not have a clearly commercial nature. In such a market, various measures and forms of regulation prevail, and prices remain relatively stable.

An open market is an area of ​​ordinary commercial activity where the circle of independent sellers and buyers is unlimited. The absence of non-commercial ties between sellers and buyers predetermines the relative independence of relations between them. Usually short-term commercial transactions are concluded. An open market is characterized by frequent and sharp price fluctuations.

To organize marketing activities, it is important to classify markets according to their qualitative structure, which is based on the stratification of buyers.

For a clearer and more visual representation of it, let’s turn to Figure 2.

Figure 2. Qualitative structure of the market: a) the entire market; b) potential market

The potential market here is 10% of the population (country, region, city, etc.). It consists of buyers who show interest in purchasing goods. Meanwhile, desire alone is not enough; you must have the means to purchase. Paying customers must have access to products that satisfy their needs.

If the above conditions are met, there is reason to talk about a real market. From among its buyers, one should exclude those who, for one reason or another (legislative restrictions, health conditions, etc.) do not realize their interest in a qualified market. The latter in our example is 20% of the potential market or 50% of the actual market.

The market served by the enterprise consists of 10% of the buyers of the potential market, who have the opportunity to make a choice from the whole variety of goods offered, including by competitors.

The developed market is formed by buyers who give preference to the goods of a given enterprise. In our example, they represent only 5% of the potential market and 50% of the served one.

This classification is useful for marketing planning. If an enterprise is not satisfied with the sales volume, it considers the prospects and chooses tools to expand the market, primarily at the expense of the part it serves.

From the point of view of the features and content of marketing activities, the following markets are distinguished:

• 1) target, i.e. the market to which the marketing activities of the enterprise are directed based on the goals set for it;
• 2) barren, i.e. has no prospects for selling certain goods;
• 3) main, i.e. the market where the bulk of the enterprise’s goods are sold;
• 4) additional, which ensures the sale of a certain volume of goods;
• 5) growing, i.e. has real opportunities to increase sales volumes;
• 6) layered, characterized by instability of commercial operations.

Thus, carrying out classification according to certain criteria allows us to deepen marketing research of a specific product market in order to determine the conditions under which the most complete satisfaction of demand for goods is ensured and the prerequisites are created for their effective sales.