The richness of Indian nature lies in its diversity. 3/4 of the country's territory is occupied by plains and plateaus. India resembles a huge triangle with its apex pointing at. Along the base of the Indian triangle stretch mountain systems Karakorum, Gindukusha and Himalayas.
South of the Himalayas lies the vast, fertile Indo-Gangetic Plain. To the west of the Indo-Gangetic Plain stretches the barren Thar Desert.
Further south is the Deccan Plateau, which occupies most of the central and southern parts. The plateau is bordered on both sides by the mountains of the Eastern and Western Ghats; their foothills are occupied by tropical forests.
The climate of India over most of its territory is subequatorial, monsoon. In the north and northwest it is tropical, with precipitation of about 100 mm/year. On the windward slopes of the Himalayas, 5000-6000 mm of precipitation falls per year, and in the center of the peninsula - 300-500 mm. IN summer period up to 80% of all precipitation falls.
The largest rivers of India - the Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra - originate in the mountains and are fed by snow, glaciers and rain. The rivers of the Deccan Plateau are fed by rain. During the winter monsoon, the rivers of the plateau dry up.
In the north of the country, brown-red and red-brown savannah soils predominate, in the center - black and gray tropical and red earth laterint soils. In the south there are yellow earth and red earth soils, which developed on lava covers. The coastal lowlands and river valleys are covered with rich alluvial soils.
The natural vegetation of India has been greatly modified by man. Monsoon forests have survived only 10-15% of the original area. Every year, the forest area in India is reduced by 1.5 million hectares. Acacias and palm trees grow in savannas. In subtropical forests - sandalwood, teak, bamboo, coconut trees. Altitudinal zones are clearly defined in the mountains.
India has a rich and diverse fauna: deer, antelope, elephants, tigers, Himalayan bears, rhinoceroses, panthers, monkeys, wild boars, many snakes, birds, fish.
Have global significance recreational resources India: coastal, historical and cultural, architectural, etc.
India has significant reserves. Manganese deposits are concentrated in central and eastern India. The subsoil of India is rich in chromites, uranium, thorium, copper, bauxite, gold, magnesite, mica, diamonds, precious and semi-precious stones.
Coal reserves in the country amount to 120 billion tons (Bihar and West Bengal). India's oil and gas are concentrated in the Asamu Valley and the Gujarat plains, as well as on the Arabian Sea shelf near Bombay.
Unfavorable natural phenomena In India, there are droughts, earthquakes, floods (8 million hectares), fires, melting of snow in the mountains, soil erosion (the country loses 6 billion tons), desertification in western India, and deforestation.
Ancient India is one of the first world civilizations, along with Sumerian and ancient Egyptian. Originating in the valley great river Indus, Indian civilization was able to reach its highest peak, giving the world one of the most popular and ancient religions, an amazing culture, and original art.
Natural and climatic conditions of Ancient India
India occupies the entire area of the Hindustan Peninsula, located in southern Asia. From the north it is reliably protected by the highest mountain range in the world - the Himalayas, which protect the country from strong cold winds. The coast of India is washed warm waters Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea.
The largest arms of India are the Ganges and the Indus, thanks to which the soil in their valleys has always been very fertile. During the rainy season, these rivers often overflowed their banks, flooding everything around them.
Due to its consistently hot and humid climate with high rainfall, rice and cane have long been grown in the country.
Rice. 1. Agriculture in Ancient India.
In ancient times, farmers had a hard time, because they constantly had to fight with lush tropical vegetation, conquering land for crops. Nature and people were very closely connected with each other, and this connection was reflected in the unusual culture of Ancient India.
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Since ancient times, the people of India have had great respect for water element. After all, thanks to water it was possible to get good harvest, and, therefore, the opportunity to survive in difficult conditions. Until now, Indians sacredly revere the deepest river in the country - the Ganges, and consider it sacred.
Features of the state
In the 3rd millennium BC. e. on the Hindustan Peninsula there were two centers of Indian civilization - largest cities Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Most of the population was represented by Dravidians, who were known as excellent farmers.
In the first half of the 2nd millennium, Aryan tribes arrived on the territory of Ancient India. Over the course of several centuries, they settled throughout the peninsula, and gradually mixed with local residents, forming a single Indian people.
Each Aryan tribe had its own leader - a raja. At first they were elected, but over time the rule began to be inherited. The Rajahs were interested in expanding their lands and strengthening their kingdoms, and therefore were in a state of continuous wars with each other.
Rice. 2. Raja.
In Ancient India, there were two forms of courts: higher (royal) and lower (intracommunal). A party dissatisfied with the decision of a lower court could appeal to the king and close brahmanas to reconsider the case.
During this period, a religion called Brahmanism was formed, at the center of which was the god Brahma - the highest deity, the creator of the universe, the very first and most powerful among the gods in Hindu myths.
Under the influence of Brahmanism, the entire society in Ancient India was divided into social groups- varnas:
- Brahmins - priests who lived in temples on income from sacrifices.
- Kshatriyas - a caste of warriors who were excellent at wielding weapons, drove chariots, and were excellent horsemen.
- Vaishya - farmers and artisans. Shepherds and traders also belonged to this varna.
- Shudras - the lowest and most disrespected varna, consisting of servants.
Belonging to a varna was inherited and could not be changed in any way. Thus, social inequality crystallized even more strongly in the society of Ancient India.
Dharma, a set of rules necessary to maintain cosmic balance, was of great importance in Hindu religions. This is a righteous path, moral principles, the observance of which will help a person achieve enlightenment.
Culture of Ancient India
The most important achievement of the culture of Ancient India was the creation of an alphabetic letter consisting of 50 characters. Literacy was available only to brahmins, who guarded their knowledge very jealously.
Rich literary language Sanskrit, which means “perfect” in translation, was as if specially created for writing lyrical works. The most famous were the two great poems of the ancient world - the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, which had a huge influence on the development of Indian culture.
Scientific knowledge in the fields of medicine, mathematics, and chemistry has also received great development. Astronomy was especially well developed in Ancient India - already in ancient times, Indians knew that the Earth was spherical and rotated around its axis.
The art of Ancient India is, first of all, represented by unique architecture. The majestic palaces and temples were distinguished by incredibly meticulous decoration. Columns, gates and walls were decorated with carvings, gilded images of fruits, flowers and birds, many details were cast in silver.
Rice. 3. Temples in Ancient India.
Monasteries and temples were even built in caves. Ancient architects carved out vast corridors and halls in the mountains, monumental columns, which were then decorated with filigree carvings.
Theatrical art, which was a mixture of acting, poetry and dancing, also received great development in Ancient India.
The works of ancient sculptors and painters were mostly of a religious nature, but there were also images and sculptures made on secular themes.
What have we learned?
When studying the topic “Ancient India” according to the 5th grade history program Ancient World we learned where the ancient Indian state was located, what its natural and climatic features were. We found out how the stratification of society occurred, what was the main activity of the population. We also got acquainted with the culture and religion of Ancient India.
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Data modern science allow you to show important historical significance already in ancient times one of greatest countries world - India, to establish the origins of its civilization.
Already in the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. in India there was a slave society, writing was known, relatively high level culture.
Primitive communal system in India
Natural conditions
The name India comes from the name of the largest river in the northwest of this country. The ancient Indians called her Sindhu; This word sounded Hindu among the ancient Persians, and Indos among the ancient Greeks. The country located in the basin of this river and to the east of it, in Europe already in ancient times began to be called India. The ancient Indians themselves did not have a generally accepted name for the entire country.
India is located in South Asia, on the Deccan (Hindustan) Peninsula and the part of the mainland adjacent to it from the north. In the north it is limited by the Himalayas - the world's greatest system of mountain ranges; in the east, low but impassable mountains separating India from the countries of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula; in the west - spurs of the Himalayas, as well as other mountain ranges. To the west of these spurs there are desert and semi-desert areas with a mountainous landscape. The Deccan Peninsula extends deep into Indian Ocean, forming the Arabian Sea in the west and the Bay of Bengal in the east. India's coastline is sparsely indented, there are few islands nearby, and the Indian Ocean remains rough for much of the year. All this hindered the early development of navigation. The geographical isolation of India made it difficult for its peoples to communicate with the outside world. However, the peoples of India, especially those inhabiting its northwestern part, even under these conditions maintained diverse ties with their neighbors for many millennia.
Geographically, India is clearly divided into two main parts: the southern - peninsular and northern - mainland. On the border between them there are mountains consisting of a number of latitudinal ranges (the largest of them is Vindhya), covered in ancient times with dense forests. This mountainous area was a significant obstacle to communication between the northern and southern parts of the country, which contributed to some of their historical isolation from each other.
Southern India is a peninsula shaped like an irregular triangle with its apex facing south. The central part of the peninsula is occupied by the Deccan Plateau, enclosed between the Western and Eastern Ghats - mountains stretching along the western and eastern coasts. The Deccan Plateau has a slight slope from west to east, so almost all the major rivers of South India flow to the east. The coastal plains are most favorable for agriculture here. The central part of the peninsula is quite dry, as the mountains bordering the Deccan Plateau block the moist winds blowing from the ocean. The rivers of South India are characterized by unstable water regimes and rapid flows, which makes them difficult to use for transport and artificial irrigation.
Northern (mainland) India is divided by the Thar Desert and the vast semi-desert spaces adjacent to it into Western and Eastern. The most convenient routes of communication between them are located closer to the foothills of the Himalayas.
In the western part of Northern India is Punjab (Pyatirechye) - the valley of the Indus River and five large rivers that merge together and flow into the Indus with one river stream. Due to the arid climate, artificial irrigation is necessary for agriculture to develop here. True, areas immediately adjacent to the rivers of the Indus basin can be irrigated by their floods
In the eastern part of Northern India there is the valley of the Ganges River and its numerous deep tributaries. Currently it is almost treeless, but in ancient times it was covered with dense forests. The lower reaches of the Ganges have a very humid climate. Even such moisture-loving crops as rice, jute, sugar cane can be grown here without the use of artificial irrigation. However, as we move westward, precipitation becomes less and less abundant, and artificial irrigation becomes more and more necessary.
The natural conditions of India are extremely diverse: here are the world's highest mountains and vast plains, areas with exceptional amounts of precipitation and deserts, vast steppes and impenetrable jungles, areas with a very hot climate and high mountainous regions where ice and snow never melt. Animal and flora India is also rich and diverse. At the same time, many breeds of animals, for example, various types of cattle (zebu, buffalo, etc.), are easily tamed and domesticated. Many types of plants, including rice, cotton, jute, sugar cane, etc., were possible to cultivate even in very distant times.
One of the most important factors, which determine the climate of all of India as a whole, are the southwest monsoons, which begin to blow from the Indian Ocean in June - July and bring the bulk of atmospheric precipitation. Therefore, in most regions of the country there is a very economically favorable combination of the period of maximum solar heat with the period of maximum precipitation.
The peculiarities of the geographical environment left their mark on the history of the peoples of India, helping to accelerate the pace historical development in some areas and slowing down in others.
India is larger in size than all the previously mentioned slave countries. Very diverse natural conditions India, the ethnic composition of the population and the historical destinies of its various peoples. This makes it difficult to study ancient history of this country.
The study of the ancient history of India is also complicated by the fact that we do not have a single accurately dated written source older than the 4th century. BC e. Only for time starting from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. facts can be established political history and confidently name the names of some historical figures. Archaeological data and materials of legends preserved in religious literature, epics, etc., for all their value, do not yet make it possible to resolve many of the most important problems of the country’s ancient history.
Population
India, currently the second most populous country in the world after China, was densely populated even in ancient times; It is known that the Greek historian Herodotus, who lived in the 5th century. BC e., considered India the most populated country in the world.
The ethnic composition of the population of modern India is heterogeneous. The peoples of North-West India differ little in their physical appearance from the peoples of Iran and Central Asia. The peoples of the southern part of the peninsula differ significantly from the inhabitants of the northwestern part of the country: for example, their skin color is much darker. Other peoples of India have anthropological features intermediate between these two main ones. The population of India is also very diverse in terms of language. The numerous languages of the peoples of India for the most part belong to two groups that differ significantly from each other - Indo-European and Dravidian, which is a special group not related to others. language family. The languages of the first group predominate over most of India, the Dravidian languages only in the southern half of peninsular India; there are isolated pockets of Dravidian languages in the northwest and Indo-European languages in the south. In addition, in remote mountainous areas live peoples whose generally accepted classification according to anthropological and linguistic principles does not yet exist.
It is not yet possible to determine with certainty how this ethnic diversity came about. There are only various assumptions being made. For example, the fact that the population of Northern India is more similar in appearance and language to the peoples inhabiting Iran and Central Asia than to the population of South India led European scientists of the 19th century. to the conclusion that India, whose indigenous population, in their opinion, were peoples speaking the languages of the Dravidian group, was once invaded by the so-called “Aryans,” a group of tribes who spoke the language of the Indo-European family. Based on this assumption about the arrival of Indo-European tribes in India, the so-called theory of the “Aryan conquest of India” was created. However, what these tribes were, where they came from and when, in what form their invasion took place - none of the hypotheses expressed gives a substantiated answer to all these questions. India is one of the oldest centers of civilization.
Archaeological data on the ancient history of India
The main creator of the distinctive and original Indian culture, undoubtedly, was its indigenous population. Archaeological research in India began relatively recently, but it has already produced, especially in recent decades, extremely rich results that make it possible to shed new light on some of the most important issues in the ancient history of the country.
India has been inhabited since ancient times. This is evidenced by finds in various regions of the country of tools dating back to the Lower Paleolithic (Chellean and Acheulean types). However, in the main parts of the Indus and Ganges river valleys, no traces of Paleolithic man have yet been found, this is quite consistent with the studies of geologists showing that these most important areas modern India during the Stone Age was swampy and covered with jungle. Their development was at that time a task beyond the power of man.
The Neolithic period in India has been better and more fully studied. Neolithic human settlements have also been found in river valleys, although they are still less common here than in hilly and mountainous areas. During this period, as well as in the previous one, the main material from which tools were made was stone. However, stone processing technology has reached significant heights; Neolithic tools were carefully trimmed, and sometimes, especially their working parts, were polished. The development of the production of stone products is evidenced by a special workshop for their production discovered in the Bellary district (Madras state).
Residents of Neolithic settlements were already engaged in primitive agriculture, knew how to tame livestock, and made pottery. The ancient Indians of the Neolithic times knew how to make boats that they were not afraid to sail even into the sea. Many sites of Neolithic man have been discovered in caves, although real dwellings of the simplest type were also built at this time. In some Neolithic sites, paintings were discovered on the walls of caves. Most interesting samples Neolithic paintings are found in caves near the village of Singanpur (Central India).
Public relations
Data about the primitive communal system in India are preserved in historical traditions, myths, and legends collected in ancient Indian religious literature and in the ancient Indian epic in the Indo-European language - Sanskrit. These legends go back to the 2nd millennium BC. e., but certainly retained earlier data, including about the population who spoke non-Indo-European languages. Studying the remnants of primitive communal relations among some tribes and nationalities of modern India also helps to understand the course of the historical development of the country in the distant past. Traditions and legends preserve vague memories of the period of gathering, how man learned to make and use fire and what significance he attached to this achievement.
Evidence has been preserved indicating the existence of a tribal community in India - the Ghana. Ghana usually consisted of one settlement - grama and was a single economic and social organism. Members of the Ghana were related by blood, each participating in the production process and military operations on on equal footing with everyone and had the right to an equal share with others in the distribution of the products of collective labor. The head of the community - ganapati, who supervised all the work, was elected by the community meeting - sabha. War booty was the property of the entire community, and what was to be consumed individually was divided equally. Position of a woman in. community was high. Relationships were counted on the maternal side, which indicates the presence of a maternal family at that time.
The above-mentioned written sources also contain data (however, scanty and insufficiently defined) about the tribal organization. The tribe, you see, consisted of several ganas. The supreme authority in the tribe was general meeting all adult members of the tribe - samati, who chose the tribal leader - raja, the head of the tribal militia.
Religious beliefs were based on the worship of the forces of nature, and the cult consisted of sacrifices to the gods along with various magical actions that represented ritual reproduction production processes in the community. During religious holidays, hymns were sung in praise of the gods. The religious ritual was led by the head of the community. There was no professional priesthood yet. The dead were buried without a coffin or in special urns. Tombstones such as dolmens are also known.
Transition to metal
Gold was the first metal that the ancient Indians learned to use, but it was used only to make jewelry. The first metal tools and weapons, dating from the end of the 4th and beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. e., were first made of copper, and then of bronze. Naturally, the transition to metal tools occurred primarily in those areas in which there were deposits of copper ore with a high metal content. The oldest center of Indian metallurgy was probably the region of the Vindhya Mountains. This is evidenced by excavations in Gungeria (Madhya Pradesh), which discovered an ancient warehouse of various copper products (more than 400 items weighing about 360 kg), but the most ancient Indian civilization developed primarily in areas favorable for agriculture, which was at that time the most progressive form economic activity. Here, the use of metal tools gave the greatest effect in terms of increased labor productivity and the possibility of obtaining surplus product.
Each tourist, when choosing a country for his next visit, takes into account its climatic features and the best time to visit. Having chosen India for your trip, you should study the weather conditions of this country and choose the ideal ones for yourself.
Nature and climate of India
India is located in a subequatorial zone with a tropical climate. The country predominates hot weather with the monsoon season, when several dry months are followed by a series of rainy ones. Due to this feature, the nature here is extremely diverse. The snow-capped peaks of the Himalayas, the desert plains of central India and the jungles with an abundance of flora and fauna - a riot of bright colors, a variety of exotic flowers and. A huge number of people live here various types animals, including those listed in the Red Book, such as the Asian elephant, Bengal tiger, clouded leopard. The northern part of India, as well as part of the central part, repeat in their cycles the winter and summer periods close to us. For example, in the Himalayas, the coldest season lasts from early December to mid-April, during which time the temperature drops to sub-zero levels and there is a huge amount of snow in the mountains. In New Delhi in mid-January, the temperature at night drops to plus five degrees, while during the day it can rise to plus twenty-five. This means that you should take care of your clothes and carefully think through your wardrobe, and it’s better if things are made from natural fabrics.
The central part of India, located on a plateau, has a fairly mild climate for these latitudes, due to the fact that the territory is located high above sea level. The summer-autumn rainy period gives way to a dry winter-spring period. In winter, due to sharp changes in daily temperature, fogs are very frequent, so traveling by vehicle becomes unsafe. In the winter months, temperatures are the lowest; during the day the temperature does not exceed plus twenty-five degrees. Best time to visit central India - from November to March.
Climate of ancient India
In ancient times, the territory of India was much larger, the climate was more humid, as in modern times, it was determined by the country’s position relative to the Himalayas - the world’s highest mountain peaks. Areas that were not part of the mountainous part were everywhere covered with impenetrable jungle and marshy areas. But in very ancient times, several hundred million years ago, Hindustan drifted, separating from Africa, into Asia.
Climate of Goa
The state of Goa has always attracted the greatest interest among tourists visiting India. This is a popular resort among foreigners and locals, a kind of Indian Sochi, where wealthy Indians from all over the country come. In the southern parts of India, and in particular in Goa, temperatures remain consistently between plus twenty-five and thirty-five degrees, with nighttime temperatures dropping to plus fifteen during the winter months. The climate of Goa is more humid, the proximity of the ocean greatly affects the feeling of comfort - strong humidity, especially during the period when it rains, causes a lot of inconvenience to people with respiratory diseases.
At this time, you should not be surprised by damp linen and mold on the walls in inexpensive hotels. In the period from November to April there is practically no precipitation, daytime temperatures are stable, and nighttime temperatures sometimes rise to daytime temperatures. From May to October it rains almost every day, sometimes causing widespread flooding in the state.
Weather by month in Goa
The best time to visit Goa is from December to February (January-February is the season for delicious avocados). Temperature and humidity during this period are optimal, although at night it can be cool on the coast. During the high season there is the most large number of foreign tourists in Goa, all sorts of events are regularly held in Goa and neighboring states.
Starting in March, it becomes hotter and more humid, followed by the rainy season in May-June. It lasts here until the end of October. Moreover, the bulk of precipitation occurs in the summer. At the end of spring and beginning of autumn, the rains are short-lived and quickly replaced by the scorching sun. Prices for services, tickets and accommodation increase during the high season, so those who like to save money should consider visiting Goa in April or October. The weather in Goa at this time is quite comfortable, the number of tourists is noticeably less.
It is worth noting that at the end of April - beginning of May, delicious local mangoes appear on the shelves of local fruit stalls. In contrast to the large yellow-red fruits brought here from other Indian states, local fruits are small in size and have a greenish-yellow color. After the rainy season in October and early November, ocean waters are far from ideal. Heavy rains wash downed trees and household debris into the ocean. From mid-April until just before the start of the new rainy season, the ocean is choppy, big waves pose a danger, especially on rocky beaches such as Vagator and Anjuna. And also at this time water snakes appear.
Northern India is divided by deserts called Thar.
In the western part of Northern India there is Punjab - this is the valley of the Indus River and five large rivers that flow into the Indus.
In the eastern part of Northern India there is the Ganges River valley. IN given time This part of India has practically no forests, but, nevertheless, in ancient times it was covered with saturated forests. The Ganga has a very humid climate, which in turn affects rice, jute and sugar cane which cannot be grown here without the use of artificial drainage. But, if you move a little forward to the western part, then there is less atmospheric precipitation and, accordingly, artificial drainage is extremely necessary here.
The most ancient civilization of the Indus Valley (the so-called “Harappa/Mohenjo-Daro civilization”).
The most established and ancient Chalcolithic settlements have been found so far in the only place, which is located on the western edge of the Indus Valley. At least, if we compare the climate in North-West India that took place in the 4th-3rd millennia BC. uh, compared to now it was more important.In the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. e, agriculture was widespread in these places, which later became their main activity, but at the same time, cattle breeding also played an important role in their life. For farming, they preferred river valleys, which were periodically flooded by rain. The creation and improvement of new tools gradually opened the way to these valleys. The Indus Valley was the first to be developed. In the Indus, over time, pockets began to appear in relation to their formed agricultural civilization, and the formation of a productive force here seemed more convenient. In the new environment, property appeared, and subsequently inequality between society, which became the reason for the dissolution of the primitive communal system, and then its erection into a state.
Numerous excavations that took place in the Indus Valley indicated that in the III-II millennia BC. uh, there was a bright and standard civilization.
In the 20s of the twentieth century. urban-type settlements were found, which in turn had many similar features.
These settlements had their own culture, which was called “Harappa”. Excavations were also carried out in Mohenjo-Daro, which was considered the province of Sind, which gave excellent results.
The development of the Harappan culture should be dated to the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. The past stages of development of this culture are unknown.
