Information collection methods. There are three main classes of information gathering methods 1 Direct observation 2 Document analysis 3 Polls, which are divided into two subclasses a interview b questionnaire DIRECT OBSERVATION Observation refers to the direct recording of events by an eyewitness.

Observation can wear different character. Sometimes the observer independently observes the events taking place. Sometimes he can use the observational data of other persons. Observation is simple and scientific. Simple is that which is not subject to a plan and is carried out without a definitely developed system. Scientific observation is distinguished by the fact that it is subject to a clear research goal and clearly formulated tasks. b Scientific observation is planned according to a predetermined procedure. c All observational data are recorded in protocols or diaries according to certain system. d Information obtained through scientific observation must be verifiable for validity and sustainability.

Observation is classified 1 According to the degree of formalization, uncontrolled or non-standardized, unstructured and controlled standardized, structural are distinguished. In uncontrolled observation, only a fundamental plan is used, and in controlled observation, events are recorded according to a detailed procedure. 2 Depending on the position of the observer, there are participating or included and simple non-included observations.

During participant observation, the researcher imitates entry into the social environment, adapts to it and analyzes events as if from the inside. In non-involved simple observation, the researcher observes from the outside without interfering in events. In both cases, surveillance can be done openly or incognito. One of the modifications of participant observation is called stimulating observation.

This method involves the influence of the researcher on the events that he observes. The sociologist creates a certain situation in order to stimulate events, which makes it possible to evaluate the reaction to this intervention. 3 According to the conditions of organization, observations are divided into field observations in natural conditions and laboratory observations in an experimental situation. The procedure for any observation consists of answering the questions What to observe, How to observe, and How to keep records.

We will try to find answers to them. The first question is answered by the research program, in particular the state of hypotheses, empirical indicators of the selected concepts, the research strategy as a whole. In the absence of clear hypotheses, when the study is carried out according to a voluntary exemplary plan, a simple or unstructured observation is used. The purpose of such a preliminary observation is to come up with hypotheses for a more rigorous description of the observed object.

The following is used in this case: the rules and norms governing the state of the object as a whole are formal and generally accepted, but not fixed in instructions or orders; the degree of self-regulation of the object of observation to what extent its state is determined by external factors and internal causes. 2 An attempt to determine the typicality of the observed object in a given situation, relative to other objects and situations public consciousness for now. 3 Subjects or participants in social events. Depending on the general task of observation, they can be classified according to demographic and social signs according to the content of the activity, the nature of work, the sphere of occupation, the sphere of leisure regarding the status in a team or group, the head of the team, subordinate, administrator, public figure, member of the team, according to official functions in joint activities at the object under study, duties, rights, real opportunities for their implementation of the rules by which they are strictly followed and neglected in informal relations and functions friendship, connections, informal leadership, authority 5 The structure of activity on the part of external motives, incentives, internal conscious intentions, motives, means attracted to achieve goals in terms of the content of the means and their moral assessment, according to the intensity of activity, productive, reproductive, intense, calm, and according to its practical results, material and spiritual products. 6 Regularity and frequency of observed events for a number of the above parameters and for typical situations that they describe.

Observation according to such a plan allows you to better understand the object of observation.

According to the collected preliminary data, the tasks of observation are specified.

Some aspects of the observed events are studied in more detail, others are completely omitted. Thus, after the preliminary, the observation passes into the stage of a more formalized search.

Drawing up a rigid procedure for controlled observation is preceded by detailed analysis problems based on theory and data from unsupervised observation.

Now individual phenomena, events, forms of human behavior must be interpreted in terms of the logic of research, they acquire the meaning of indicators of some more common properties or action. An instructive technique for registering observed events was developed by Moscow sociologists within the framework of the public opinion research project, the head of the study, B.A. Grushin. Assemblies were singled out as one of the channels for expressing public opinion.

To record the data, an observation file was used, including nine different forms for assessing the situation before the start of the meeting, the organizational period, recording the actions of the speaker or speaker, recording the audience's reactions to the speech, describing the general situation during the debate, the situation when making decisions at the meeting, in particular when discussing amendments and additions to the draft decision, situations at the end of the meeting and a card general characteristics assembly.

This is how the indicator card looks like for registering the attitude of the meeting participants to the speaker - the speaker, the discussion participant. Indicators of the attitude of the participants in the meeting to the speakers by direct observation of the reactions of the audience Elements of observed behavior The strength of the manifestation of the reaction by groups scale estimates Special notes of the observer, not formalized in advance A Approving remarks, exclamations, applause. B Disapproving remarks, etc. C Demanding additional information.

D Conversations related to the issue under discussion. D Questions to the speaker. E No reaction neutral attitude. G Appeals for observance of order. 3 Calls for compliance with the regulations. And Conversations, the topic of which cannot be determined. To extraneous conversations. L Engaging in extraneous activities.1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 A 6-term nominal scale is given for each line of elements of the observed behavior , the points of which are 1 - the presidium of the meeting 2 - the majority of the audience 3 - about half of the audience 4 - the minority of the audience 5 - several people 6 - one - two people Observation of a large meeting audience is carried out by several persons who adhere to a single instruction. The preparation of a protocol for recording observational data is preceded not only by the development of a general concept, but also by repeated non-standardized observations at different objects, in our case, meetings of different organizations and teams.

Whether the observer should intervene in the observed process The answer to this question depends on the purpose of the study.

If the purpose of the study is to describe and analyze and diagnose the situation, then the intervention will distort the picture and may lead to a distortion of information that is undesirable for the study. To do this, there are ways to achieve minimal errors in diagnostic observation. One is for the researcher to make sure people don't know they're being watched. Another way is to create a false idea about the purpose of the observation.

Of course, these methods may seem immoral, but in order to achieve the veracity of the information, it is better for the researcher not to show his goals, especially if, having learned about them, people can misinterpret the research objectives. If the purpose of the study is to make certain management decisions, then the intervention will be useful, as it will allow you to change the course of events and evaluate the results. This is the purpose of stimulating participant observation.

The advantages of included observations are obvious; they give the most vivid, direct impressions of the environment, help to better understand the actions of people and the actions of social communities. But the main disadvantages of this method are also associated with this. The researcher may lose the ability to objectively assess the situation, as if inwardly moving to the positions of those whom he studies, he too gets used to his role as an accomplice in events. Therefore, as a rule, the result of participant observation is a sociological essay, and not a strictly scientific treatise.

There are also moral problems of participant observation, how ethical it is, masquerading as an ordinary member of some community of people, to actually explore their Ways to improve the reliability of data during observation. In the field, with simple unstructured and uninvolved observation, it is very difficult to keep records. This is a matter of skill and ingenuity of the researcher. You can use pre-designed codes. You can use camouflage techniques, for example, a student at an enterprise to keep records supposedly related to work.

You can use a good memory and record observations later, in a calm environment. Structured observation undertakes more rigorous record keeping practices. Forms are used here - protocols lined by observation points with code designations of events and situations. Example Observers and employees of the research team who investigated the meetings divided the observation zones of the presidium, the speaker, the sector of the meeting participants from 15-20 people and recorded what was happening on the time scale using codes.

In the protocol, see the diagram below, in each line, a point of the nominal scale is marked, taking into account time. Let me remind you that another observer registers the actions of the speakers according to the appropriate instructions, after which it is possible to synchronize the reactions of the audience to the speeches from the podium of the meeting. The frequency and intensity of events in this case are recorded using ranking scales according to the previous scheme, column 2. Modern technology allows the use of a tape recorder, film or camera, video recordings that ensure the authenticity of the registration of the observed. Event registration protocol based on indicators of the attitude of meeting participants to speakers Time Elements of observed behavior and reactions encoded in a nominal scale Special marks, notes 0 - 5 min 6 - 10 min abvgdez and events to be monitored using clear indicators.

Their reliability is tested in trial observations, where several observers register, according to a single instruction, the same events occurring on an object similar to the one that will be studied. b If the main observation is carried out by several persons, they compare their impressions and agree on assessments, interpretation of events using a single recording technique, thereby increasing the stability of the observation data. c One and the same object should be observed in different situations, normal and stressful, standard and unusual, which allows you to see it from different angles. d It is necessary to clearly distinguish and record the content, forms of manifestation of observed events and their quantitative characteristics intensity, regularity, periodicity, frequency. e It is important to ensure that the description of events is not confused with their interpretation.

Therefore, the protocol should have special columns for recording factual data and for their interpretation. f In case of inclusion or non-inclusion observation performed by one researcher, it is especially important to monitor the validity of the interpretation of the data, trying to cross-check your impressions with the help of various possible interpretations.

For example, the violent reaction of the meeting to a speech may be the result of approval, dissatisfaction with what was said by the speaker, a reaction to his joke or remark from the audience, to a mistake or reservation made by him, to an extraneous action during the speech. In all these cases, special notes are made explaining the protocol record. g It is useful to use an independent test to test the validity of an observation.

Observation data from the outside can be controlled by interviews with participants in the events, it is desirable to check the materials of the included observation not included in the same program or according to the available documents.

Place of observation among other methods of data collection.

The main disadvantage of this method is the bias of the observer. A person very rarely assesses the situation absolutely impartially, he tends to draw conclusions. The personal characteristics of the observer definitely affect his impressions. The events of the past, many phenomena and processes of a mass character, the isolation of a small part of which makes their study unrepresentative, are not subject to observation.

Observation is used mainly as a supplementary method that allows you to collect materials to start work or helps to check the results of other methods of collecting information. DOCUMENTARY SOURCES Documentary in sociology is any information fixed in printed or handwritten text, on magnetic tape, on photographic or film. In this sense, the concept of documentation differs from the commonly used one; we usually refer to documents as official materials.

According to the method of fixing information, handwritten and printed documents are distinguished on magnetic tape. From the point of view of the intended purpose, materials that were chosen by the researcher himself are distinguished. Example The American sociologist W. Thomas and the Polish F. Znaniecki studied the life of Polish emigrants in Europe and America according to documents. They asked a Polish peasant to write an autobiography and received from him 300 pages of handwritten text. These documents are called target. Other documents, independent of the sociologist, are called cash.

Usually they constitute documentary information in sociological research. According to the degree of personification, documents are divided into personal and impersonal. Personal documents individual accounting library forms, questionnaires and forms certified by a signature, references issued to a given person, letters, diaries, statements, memoirs. Impersonal - statistical or event archives, press data, minutes of meetings.

Depending on the status, documents are divided into official and unofficial. Official - protocols, government materials, resolutions, statements, communiques, transcripts of official meetings, state and departmental statistics, archives, etc. reporting. Unofficial - personal documents, as well as impersonal documents compiled by private citizens, for example, statistical generalizations made by another researcher based on their own observations. A special group of documents - the media, newspapers, magazines, radio, television, cinema. According to the source of information, documents are divided into primary and secondary.

The first is direct observation. To secondary - processing of direct observation data, generalization or description based on primary sources. You can also classify documents by content, for example, literary data, historical and scientific archives, archives sociological research. The problem of the reliability of documentary information.

One should not confuse such concepts as reliability, the authenticity of the document itself with the reliability of the information reported in it. Reliability primarily depends on the source of the available document. Of course, official, personal, first-hand documents are much more reliable than any other. Evaluation of the method of documentary analysis. Documents often act as the main source of information supplemented by a survey or direct observation. The sociologist must show remarkable ingenuity in the search for suitable documents, sometimes quite unexpected ones.

The main shortcomings of the described method are the problems of obtaining reliable information from biographical materials and the fact that when studying human activity, the process is almost not reflected in the documents, but only the results. Document analysis is an important method of gathering information in the formulation research plan for hypotheses and general exploration of the topic and at the stage of work on the descriptive plan. In experimental studies, significant difficulties arise in translating the language of documents into the language of hypotheses, but, as experience shows, even these difficulties can be overcome with skillful handling of the material.

Finally, the data of state statistics, the numerous data of the Central Statistical Bureau, which one must be able to use, as well as to know with what regularity they are collected and published, are of enormous and quite independent importance for the sociologist. POLLS Polls are an indispensable method of obtaining information about the subjective world of people, their inclinations, motives, and opinions.

Polling is an almost universal method. with proper precautions, you can get at least reliable information than when examining documents or observing. And this information can be about anything. Even about what you can not see or read. For the first time, official polls appeared in England at the end of the 18th century, and in early XIX century in the USA. In France and Germany, the first surveys were conducted in 1848, in Belgium - in 1868-1869. And then they began to actively spread. The art of using this method is to know what to ask, how to ask, what questions to ask, and finally, how to make sure that the answers you receive can be trusted.

For the researcher, first of all, it is necessary to understand that it is not the average respondent who participates in the survey, but a living, real person endowed with consciousness and self-awareness, who affects the sociologist in the same way as the sociologist affects him. Respondents are not impartial registrars of their knowledge and opinions, but living people who are not alien to some kind of sympathy, preferences, fears, etc. Therefore, perceiving questions, they cannot answer some of them due to lack of knowledge, and they do not want to answer others or answer insincerely.

Types of polls. There are two large classes of survey methods: interviews and questionnaires. An interview is a conversation conducted according to a specific plan, involving direct contact between the interviewer and the respondent being interviewed, and the latter's answers are recorded either by the interviewer as his assistant, or mechanically on film.

There are many types of interviews. 1 According to the content of the conversation, documentary interviews are distinguished, the study of past events, clarification of facts and interviews of opinions, the purpose of which is to identify assessments, views, judgments, interviews with specialist experts stand out, and the organization and structure of interviews with specialists differs significantly from the usual survey system. 2 According to the technique of conducting - they are divided into free, non-standardized and formalized, as well as semi-standardized interviews.

Free - a long conversation for several hours without strict detailing of questions, but according to general program interview guide. Such interviews are appropriate at the exploration stage in the formulational research plan. Standardized interviews, like formalized observation, require a detailed development of the entire procedure, including the general plan of the conversation, the sequence and design of questions, and possible answers. 3 Depending on the specifics of the procedure, the interview may be intensive clinical, i. deep, sometimes lasting for hours and focused on identifying a fairly narrow range of reactions of the respondent.

The purpose of a clinical interview is to obtain information about the internal motives, motives, inclinations of the respondent, and a focused interview is to extract information about the subject's reactions to a given impact. With its help, they study, for example, to what extent a person reacts to individual components of information from the mass press, lectures, etc. Moreover, the text of information is pre-processed by content analysis.

In a focused interview, they try to determine which semantic units of text analysis are at the center of the attention of the respondents, which are on the periphery, and which are not left in the memory at all. 4 So-called non-directed interviews are therapeutic in nature. The initiative for the flow of the conversation here belongs to the respondent himself, the interviewer only helps him pour out his soul. 5 Finally, according to the method of organization, interviews are divided into group and individual.

The former are used relatively rarely; this is a planned conversation, during which the researcher seeks to provoke a discussion in the group. the methodology for conducting reader's conferences resembles this procedure. Telephone interviews are used to quickly solicit opinions. Questioning The study of public opinion is associated mainly with the conduct of a survey. It can be said that a real questionnaire boom, questionnaire mania, has formed in the region.

This is one of the main forms, but far from the only one. Questioning, conducted for any reason, on any topic, often does not stand up to criticism and should be regarded only as a tribute to fashion. Many questionnaires are a mechanical set of thoughtful, often illiterately formulated, curious questions, they do not give an idea of ​​the purpose of the study, they do not cause any feelings other than bewilderment and irritation among the respondents and, accordingly, the information received has no practical value.

Moreover, such questionnaires are sometimes provocative in nature, in themselves they are a source of the emergence and formation of perverted public opinion. So, in one of the districts, a survey was conducted among high school students about their attitude to religion. For clarity, we will give the full text of some questions of the questionnaire 1 what do you know about the origin of Jesus Christ and in your concept of god is a person b in your concept of god is a myth, fiction 2 can there be spiritual interests of believers in God, non-believers, in our life, convinced supporters of atheism, yes. b no 3 who has a positive influence on you in matters of religion a family b friends c art and church

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26. Data collection methods

Usually, data processing methods are chosen at the stage of experiment planning or even earlier - when putting forward an experimental hypothesis. The experimental hypothesis is transformed into a statistical one. Possible types of statistical hypotheses in pilot study a little: a) about the similarity or difference between two or more groups; b) about the interaction of independent variables; c) about the statistical relationship of independent and dependent variables; d) about the structure of latent variables (refers to the correlation study).

Statistical assessments provide information not about the presence, but about the reliability of similarities and differences in the results of control and experimental groups.

There are "bindings" of certain methods of processing results to experimental plans. Factor designs require the use of analysis of variance to assess the influence of independent variables on the dependent one, as well as to determine the measure of their interaction with each other.

Exist standard packages programs for mathematical data processing. All packages are divided into types: 1) specialized packages; 2) packages of general value and 3) incomplete packages of general purpose. General purpose packages are recommended for explorers. Western statistical packages require good user preparation at the level of knowledge of the university course of mathematical statistics and multivariate data analysis. Each program is supplied with documentation. Domestic packages are closer to the capabilities of our user. Related information (reference book, output interpreter, etc.) is included in the software system. Examples are domestic statistical packages "Mesosaurus", "Eurist".

Data collection using diagnostic techniques is preceded by a period of familiarization with a certain set of objective and subjective indicators (conversation, medical history, conclusions of other specialists, etc.) about the subject, during which a research task is formed. The authors of all known diagnostic methods draw Special attention on a thorough preliminary study of the subject, the need to take into account his past and present. This creates the main background of the study, outlines the elements of a working picture of the personality necessary for diagnosis and prognosis.

Since a psychodiagnostic examination always forms a system of interaction "experimenter-subject", much attention is paid in the literature to the analysis of the influence of various variables included in this system. Typically, situational variables, survey objective and task variables, researcher and subject variables are distinguished. The significance of these variables is quite large, and their influence should be taken into account when planning and conducting research, processing and using the results obtained.

In psychological diagnostics, there are often no clear instructions regarding the choice of certain methods depending on the tasks set. This is especially evident in the field of diagnosing personality traits, where the same technique is used for different purposes. Theoretically, the validity (the actual ability of a test to measure the psychological characteristic for the diagnosis of which it is claimed) of a particular technique in relation to the formulated diagnostic task should be a criterion for choosing it as a research tool.

However, there are significant difficulties in determining the validity of personal methods. One must take into account the well-known unreliability of a psychiatric diagnosis; the existence of clinical and diagnostic inconsistencies in various schools and directions; the expediency of using a psychiatric diagnosis as an external criterion for questionnaires focused on the detection of pathology. But even in the case when the empirical coefficient of validity of the method is known, it should be assessed in relation to the base level of the diagnosed parameter. Under the base level is understood the proportion of the presence in the studied population of the trait (feature) that we are going to diagnose. The ratio of the validity coefficient of the test to the baseline allows you to answer the question of how justified its use will be.

It is also known that the validity of the test depends on the characteristics of the examined groups (subgroups) or the so-called moderators.

When choosing methods, one should also be guided by what can be described as the breadth of their coverage of personal characteristics. The accuracy of the diagnostic solution, the prognosis also depends on this.

After formulating the diagnostic task, selecting the appropriate methods and conducting the study, the results obtained should be presented in the form that is determined by the features of the methods used. "Raw" scores are converted into standard values, IQ is calculated, "personality profiles" are built, etc.

27. The personality of the subject and the experimenter

A psychological experiment is a meeting of the subject (s) with the experimenter. However, a breakup follows. The situation of the experiment can be considered both from the outside ("input" and "exit" from the situation), and from the inside (what happened during the experiment).

The subject reacts not just to the experiment as some incomprehensible whole, but identifies it with some class of real life situations that he encounters, and accordingly builds his behavior.

The experimenter not only recruits a representative group, but also actively recruits people to participate in the experiment.

This means that it is not indifferent to the researcher what uncontrollable psychological features distinguish the people involved in the study from all the others; what motives prompted them, being included in the psychological study as subjects.

The subject may participate in the study voluntarily or involuntarily, against his will. Taking part in a "natural experiment", he may not know that he has become a test subject.

Why do people volunteer to participate in research? Half of the subjects agreed to participate in the experiments (long and tedious), driven only by curiosity. Often the subject wants to know something about himself, in particular, in order to understand relationships with others.

Voluntary participation in the experiment is taken by subjects seeking to earn money, get credit (if we are talking about psychology students). Most of the subjects who were forced to participate in the experiment opposed this, were critical of the experiment, and hostile and distrustful of the experimenter. Often they seek to destroy the experimenter's plan, "outplay" it, i.e. consider the situation of the experiment as a conflict.

M. Matlin introduced a classification, dividing all the subjects into positive, negative and gullible. Usually experimenters prefer the former and the latter.

The study can be conducted with the participation of not only volunteers or forcibly recruited, but also anonymous and reporting their passport details of the subjects. It is assumed that during an anonymous study, the subjects are more open, and this is especially important when conducting personal and socio-psychological experiments. However, it turns out that during the experiment, non-anonymous subjects are more responsible for the activity and its results.

Research is included in the context of the practical activity of a psychologist, thereby limiting freedom in choosing objects of research, varying conditions, methods of influence and control of variables. This choice is strictly subordinated to the achievement of a consulting or psychotherapeutic effect. On the other hand, the life situation of the subject is clearer, the motivation for his participation in the study is defined, which allows a stricter approach to the design and typology of the experimental situation, and, consequently, the accounting and control of its influence on the behavior of the subject.

The solution of the scientific and practical task is reduced to a certain change in the fate of the subject: he may or may not be hired, to a university, prescribed or not prescribed treatment, etc. At the end of the examination (the “exit” point), the subject can receive the results and determine his own behavior and life path on the basis of them. Otherwise, another person (psychodiagnostic, administrator, etc.) changes his life path. At the same time, the decision of the experimenter or the person to whom the psychodiagnostician entrusted the data does not depend on the further actions of the subject and is determined only by the will of others. Therefore, in the first case, the subject of choice (decision-making) is the subject, in the second - another person.

Each science has its own methods of research and collection of information. Social psychology is no exception. Although, as an independent science, it began to be distinguished only by the end of the 19th century. The methods of social psychology are used to study the main psychological phenomena in society and their patterns. The study of the totality of all indicators helps to reveal the essence and depth of the ongoing processes and phenomena in society.

All methods used in social psychology can be divided into two large groups:

1. The method of collecting information (observation, experiment, survey, test, study of documentary sources).

2. Method of information processing (correlation and factor analysis, construction of typologies, etc.).

Observation

This method can rightly be called the most "ancient" and one of the most popular. It does not require special preparations and tools. True, there is a significant drawback - there is no clear plan for recording data and interpreting them. Each subsequent researcher will describe the data through the prism of his perception.

What is the subject of observation in social psychology? First of all, verbal and non-verbal acts in the behavior of one person, small or large group who are in certain conditions of the social environment or situation. For example, answer the question?

Observation is of several types:

External observation is a method of collecting information that each of us often uses. The researcher, through direct observation from the outside, obtains information about the psychology and behavior of people.

Internal observation or self-observation is when a research psychologist wants to study a phenomenon of interest to him exactly in the form in which it is represented in consciousness. He sets himself a task and conducts internal observation of himself.

Observation considers an object or phenomenon as a whole. This method of social psychology is not limited to a clear program of study. The observer can change the object of his observation at any time if he is interested in something that was not planned in advance. Using this method, it will not be possible to identify the cause of what is happening, and a lot of time will have to be spent.

Experiment

This method psychological research quite specific. The researcher, if necessary, can work and create an artificial situation to study a certain property, which "here and now" will be best manifested.

The experiment is natural and laboratory. What distinguishes them is that the psychology and behavior of people can be studied in remote or close to reality conditions.

A natural experiment takes place in a normal life situation. The researcher only fixes the data, without interfering in the course of events.

Laboratory experiment opposite. It takes place in a previously artificially created situation. This is done in order to study a certain property as best as possible.

Survey

One of the frequently used methods of social psychology can be safely called - a survey. This is usually a series of questions that the subjects must answer. Its great advantage is that it is possible to cover a large number of respondents in a short period of time.

Specialists use oral questioning when it is necessary to observe how a person behaves and how he reacts to questions. It, in contrast to the written one, will allow a deeper study of human psychology. However, it requires more special training and time.

In order to cover a large number of subjects, a written survey is used - a questionnaire.

If a written or oral survey is not limited to certain answers to questions, then it is called free. Its plus is that you can get interesting and non-standard answers.

We all know tests - this is also one of the methods of social psychology. With their help, the researcher receives accurate information, both qualitatively and quantitatively.

With the help of tests, it is easy to compare the psychology of different people, give assessments, and study yourself. Probably, everyone at least once answered the questions of the tests?

Tests are divided into two types - task and questionnaire. We often come across questionnaires. They are based on a system of responses that are carefully selected and tested for reliability and validity. The test questionnaire allows you to study the psychological qualities of people.

The test task will help to assess the psychological and behavioral qualities of a person based on what and how he does. This method is based on a series of special tasks presented to the subject. Based on the results of the test, we can talk about whether a person has a certain quality and how developed it is.

Sociometry is widely used in the study of the psychology and behavior of small groups.

Statistical method

Methods and models of mathematical statistics are widely used in social psychology. They help in the collection of information, as well as its processing, analysis, modeling and comparison of results.

In the article, we have listed the main methods of research in social psychology. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. Which method to choose depends on what goal the researcher sets for himself and what process or phenomenon he plans to study.

Scientific research methods are those techniques and means by which scientists obtain reliable information used to build scientific theories and develop practical advice. The strength of science largely depends on the perfection of research methods, on how valid and reliable they are, how quickly and effectively a given field of knowledge is able to absorb and use all the newest, most advanced that appears in the methods of other sciences. Where this can be done, there is usually a noticeable breakthrough in the knowledge of the world.

All of the above applies to social psychology. Its phenomena are so complex and peculiar that throughout the history of this science its success has directly depended on the perfection of the research methods used. Over time, the methods of various sciences were integrated into it. These are the methods of mathematics, general psychology, a number of other sciences.

Along with the mathematization and technicalization of research in social psychology, the traditional methods of collecting scientific information, such as observation and questioning, have not lost their significance.

In my essay on the topic “” one of the traditional methods collection of scientific information - observation.

If the data on the process being examined, on the activities of individuals, groups, collectives as a whole should be maximally "cleaned" from the rational, emotional and other properties of the respondents, then they resort to such a method of collecting information as observation.

Observation is the oldest method of knowledge. Its primitive form - worldly observations is used by every person in everyday practice. By registering the facts of the environment social reality and his behavior, a person tries to find out the reasons for certain actions and actions. Everyday observations differ from scientific observations primarily in that they are random, unorganized and unplanned.

Since sociological observation is associated with direct, immediate perception of events or participation in them, it has much in common with how a person perceives what is happening in everyday life, analyzes and explains people's behavior, associates it with the characteristics of the conditions of activity, remembers and generalizes events, the eyewitness of which he becomes. But there are also big differences. Sociological observation as a method of collecting scientific information is always directed, systematic, direct tracking and recording of significant social phenomena, processes, events. It serves certain cognitive purposes and can be subjected to control and verification.

The method of observation was used even at the stage of formation of Marxist sociology. F. Engels studied the English proletariat, its aspirations, sufferings and joys directly from personal observations and in personal communication for 21 months.

An interesting experience of using the method of observation and analysis of its results was accumulated in Russian literature of the 40s of the 19th century. In the social fiction of this period, civic feelings and mindsets of the intelligentsia close to the people, the search for an artistic reflection of the life of various social groups, features of the scientific, sociological vision of social development. Writers close to V.G. Belinsky and N.A. Nekrasov, not only gave accurate sketches of life, actions, elements of consciousness of representatives of many social, professional communities, but also created typological images, generalized sociological and artistic types of people of their time. The general humanistic pathos of their works, as well as the method they used to collect and comprehend the facts of social life, to a large extent predetermined both the nature of later progressive Russian literature and the specifics of the formation of Russian sociology.

Observation is the simplest and most common of all objective methods in psychology. Scientific observation is in direct contact with ordinary everyday observation. It is therefore necessary first of all to establish the general basic conditions which observation must generally satisfy in order to be a scientific method.

The first reason for the requirement is the presence of a clear target setting: a clearly conscious goal should guide the observer. In accordance with the purpose, an observation plan must be defined, fixed in the scheme. The planned and systematic nature of observation is its most essential feature as a scientific method. They must eliminate the element of chance inherent in everyday observation. Thus, the objectivity of observation depends primarily on its planned and systematic nature. And, if the observation proceeds from a clearly conscious goal, then it must acquire a selective character. It is absolutely impossible to observe everything in general due to the limitless diversity of the existing. Any observation therefore has a selective, or selective, partial character.

Observation becomes a method of scientific knowledge only insofar as it is not limited to a simple registration of facts, but proceeds to the formulation of hypotheses in order to test them on new observations. Objective observation is truly scientifically fruitful when it is associated with the establishment and testing of hypotheses. The separation of the subjective interpretation from the objective and the exclusion of the subjective is carried out in the very process of observation, combined with the formulation and testing of hypotheses.

Event qualification: units and categories of observation.

Unlike everyday scientific observation, it is mediated by research goals that determine the subject of observation and the field of facts that are included in the reality being studied. It is also mediated by theoretical ideas about the reality being studied and put forward by cognitive hypotheses. Observation as a way of collecting data is characterized by an essential feature: the theoretical ideas of the researcher are included not only in the explanation of the observed, but also in the very process of observation, in the very description of the observed. In everyday life, we reflect the world around us in the system of meanings enshrined in the language. In socio-psychological observation, the subject of observation uses specially selected categories and units that act as means of a qualitative description of the reality he observes.

Observation of the integral flow of activity of the subject and its description are possible only by artificially isolating certain "units" of activity in it, which are assigned certain names. The selection of these "units" allows: a) to limit the process of observation to certain limits: in what properties, manifestations and relations is the studied reality perceived by the observer; b) choose specific language descriptions of the observed, as well as a way of fixing the observation data, i.e. the way the observer reports about the perceived phenomenon; c) to systematize and control the inclusion in the process of obtaining empirical data of a theoretical "view" on the phenomenon under study.

A qualitative description constitutes the first stage of reflecting the results of an observation, which proceeds as a process of qualifying the observed events. An observed phenomenon becomes an empirical fact only after it has been described by the observer. All diverse approaches to the description of phenomena can be reduced to two main types. The first is the description of the object in the vocabulary of a "natural" language. In everyday life, we use ordinary ("everyday") concepts to describe what we perceive. So, we say: "the person smiled", and not "the person stretched and lifted the corners of his lips, slightly narrowing his eyes." And scientific observation can also be based on the use of such units, if, in accordance with the objectives of the study, their repertoire is clearly defined as a set of possible concepts in which the properties of the observed phenomenon are recorded.

The second approach to description is the development of systems of conditional names, designations, artificially created signs, codes. The allocation of units of observation can be based on theoretical ideas about the observed phenomenon. In this case, the means of observation are categories - such units of description that receive their conceptual meaning only in a certain system of theoretical views of the researcher. So, one and the same phenomenon can be said in different ways, depending on the knowledge of the context: "a person is running" or "a person is running away." In the latter case, an interpretation is included in the description of external motor activity, but it is connected only with the inclusion of the context of the situation (you can run away from someone, etc.). Another example: "the child froze in place with a frightened face" or "the child shows a defensive reaction in the form of freezing." The second expression includes concepts (passive-defensive reaction), which already in the description give an interpretation of the state of the child from the point of view of a certain typology of his reactions. If in the first case the result of observation is described in units, then in the second case it is described in a system of categories.

Symbols, such as graphic symbols, can refer both to the repertoire of units and to the system of categories. That is, not the type of designation, but the content of the concepts used in their relation to the theory makes it possible to distinguish between units and categories.

Categorized observation is reduced not only to isolating certain units through the perception, but also necessarily includes the stage of meaningful subsuming under the category of these units, i.e. generalizations in the process of observation. Sometimes the category covers the same behavioral act as the unit, i.e. they can be compared according to the degree of dismemberment of the phenomenon under study and differ only in the degree of its interpretation. More often, categories subordinate a number of units to themselves.

Quantitative estimates of observational data.

There are two main ways to obtain quantitative data during observation: 1) psychological scaling, used mainly in the form of scores; 2) measurement of time, or timing. Timing underlies the application of the so-called technique of time intervals.

The second type of it is the technique of time sampling, when separate specific time intervals are selected from the holistic observed process for fixing data, which are considered representative - representative - for a longer period of observation. In real research, qualitative and quantitative descriptions of events by the observer are usually used in combination.

Quantitative estimates can be recorded directly during the observation, or they can be set after the completion of the observations, being included in the so-called retrospective report. The basis of retrospective estimates are general impressions observer, which in long-term observation may, for example, include the frequency of certain observed episodes. Quantitative characteristics can be directly included in the value judgments of observers. For example: "he often doesn't go to school", "he always loses his stuff", etc.

Along with this evaluative description of events, observation based on direct impressions may include scoring of these impressions. A. Anastasi gives an example of scales designed to identify students' opinions about teachers who teach psychology courses (4. Vol. 2. P. 232). In them, a certain score is assigned to different forms of events in the system of interpersonal relations - relations with students, for example:

"this professor is never at his workplace" - 2, "the professor will stay and talk with students until the next lecture or seminar begins" - 6, etc.

This type of retrospective assessment reflects long-term uncontrolled observations in everyday life, and, as some studies show, they can act as the only or one of the main criteria for the adequacy of some psychological tests or assessments of an individual.

Methods of psychological scaling in the process of observation are still rarely used.

An example of using the technique of time intervals is provided by studies of human behavior during the working day. For this purpose, observation is carried out not throughout the day, but for several minutes with long intervals between the selected observation periods.

Advantages and disadvantages of the observation method.

The most important advantage of the observation method is that it is carried out simultaneously with the development of the studied phenomena and processes. It opens up the possibility of directly perceiving the behavior of people in specific conditions and in real time. A carefully prepared observation procedure ensures that all significant elements of the situation are recorded. This creates the prerequisites for its objective study.

Observation allows you to cover events in a broad, multidimensional way, to describe the interaction of all its participants. It does not depend on the desire of the observed to speak out, to comment on the situation.

Objective observation, while retaining its importance, for the most part should be supplemented by other research methods. The following requirements apply to the monitoring procedure:

• a) definition of the task and goal (for what? for what purpose?);
• b) choice of object, subject and situation (what to observe?);
• c) the choice of the method of observation that has the least effect on the object under study and most ensures the collection of the necessary information (how to observe?);
• d) the choice of methods for recording the observed (how to keep records?);
• e) processing and interpretation of the received information (what is the result?).

The shortcomings of the method of observation are divided into two groups: objective - these are those shortcomings that do not depend on the observer and subjective - these are those that directly depend on the observer, since they are associated with personal, professional features observer.

First of all, the objective disadvantages include:

limited, fundamentally private nature of each observed situation. Therefore, no matter how comprehensive and deep the analysis carried out, the conclusions obtained can be generalized and extended to wider situations only with the greatest care and subject to many requirements.

complexity, and often simply the impossibility of repeating observations. Social processes are irreversible, they cannot be "played out" again so that the researcher can fix the features he needs, the elements of an event that has already taken place.

high complexity of the method. Observation often involves participation in the collection of primary information a large number highly qualified people.

The difficulties of the subjective plan are also diverse. The quality of primary information can be influenced by:

difference in the social position of the observer and the observed,

the dissimilarity of their interests, value orientations, stereotypes of behavior, etc. For example, addressing each other as "you" in a team of workers often becomes the norm for all its members. But the sociologist-observer, whose inner circle is characterized by a different form of communication, can appreciate this as an example of the disrespectful, familiar attitude of young workers towards older ones. The closeness of the social position of the observer and those observed sometimes makes it possible to exclude such errors. It contributes to a more complete and rapid coverage of the observed situation, its correct assessment.

the quality of information is also affected by the attitudes of the observed and the observer. If the observed know that they are the object of study, they can artificially change the nature of their actions, adjusting to what they think the observer would like to see. In turn, the presence of a certain expectation in the observer regarding the behavior of the observed can form a specific point of view on what is happening. This expectation may be the result of previous contacts between the observer and the observed. The observer's previously favorable impressions are transferred to the picture he observes and may cause an unjustified positive assessment of the events being analyzed. And vice versa, negative expectations (skepticism, prejudice) can lead to an exaggeratedly negative vision of the activities of the observed community of people, increased rigidity in assessing what is happening.

the results of observation directly depend on the mood of the observer, his concentration, the ability to perceive the observed situation holistically, not only to notice relatively clear external signs of activity, but also to fix subtle features of the behavior of the observed. In fixing the results of observation, the observer's own thoughts and experiences may not allow describing the observed events adequately enough. This description can occur by analogy with one's own thoughts and feelings.

So, observation is the oldest method of cognition. It allows you to cover events in a wide, multidimensional way, to describe the interaction of all its participants. The main advantage is the study social processes in natural conditions. The main shortcomings are the limited nature of each observed situation, the impossibility of repeating observations, attitudes, interests, personal characteristics of the observer. All these shortcomings can greatly affect the results of observation.

Observation(can act, for example, in the form of self-observation or observation from the side of the actions, behavior and mental state of other people; “included” observation,

Survey(can be carried out in the form of interviews, conversations, questionnaires, testing, etc. A specific form of the survey is disputes and discussions, public opinion polls by the media.

Study of documentary material(In the broad sense of the word, a document is not only one or another form of information recorded on paper, but in general all products or traces of human activity, the knowledge of which is essential for understanding the nature and essence of the phenomena being studied.)

Correlation of methods of empirical and theoretical research. However, this is far from being complete characteristic methods, the application of which is necessary for the implementation of even empirical research. The latter becomes simply impossible without theoretical support and its methods already at the stage of empirical research design. The program of empirical research includes the implementation of the methods of conceptual analysis and modeling of the structural and functional features of the phenomenon under study, the definition of the problem field, the goals and objectives of the study, hypotheses regarding the nature of the processes under study, the results expected from the results of the study.

Information processing methods. After the necessary empirical material has been collected, the next stage of the study begins, which consists in determining the degree of reliability and representativeness of the information received, as well as in its quantitative processing. The required level of reliability is provided both by a combination of a number of methods, such as a survey or observation with an experiment and an analysis of objective indicators, and by the use of modern computer technology for processing the information received. However, the problem of research accuracy in social psychology is not limited to determining the degree of reliability and representativeness of empirical data. Not less than important condition The accuracy of research is the rigor and orderliness of the logical system of science, the scientific validity of its principles, categories and laws.

When the degree of reliability of the initial data is determined, some kind of dependence, correlation between various elements of the object under study is established, the task of correlating previously formulated working hypotheses and models of the structure and mechanisms of the phenomenon under study with the obtained empirical data comes to the fore. At this stage, the system of fundamental theoretical principles of the researcher, the depth and consistency of the methodological apparatus of science acquire decisive importance. In accordance with this, we can talk not only about a set of methods for obtaining, but also about primary, quantitative processing of information, a system of methods for secondary, qualitative processing of empirical data in order to explain the dependencies established on the basis of the analysis of statistical material. (It would be more accurate to speak here not simply of the transition from quantitative to qualitative methods or methods of qualitative analysis, but to methods of analyzing the quality of the phenomenon under study.)

The main methods at this stage of the study are the most important installations of social psychology, arising from socio-psychological theory, logical methods of generalization and analysis (inductive and deductive, analogy, etc.), the construction of working hypotheses and the modeling method. All these methods as a whole can be considered as ways of explaining the empirical data. Determining the place and significance of each of them in socio-psychological research can and should become the object of special work.

Following the construction of a working hypothesis and the corresponding model (at the stage preceding the start of collecting information), the stage of their verification begins. Here again, all known methods of obtaining information are applicable to find out how it fits or does not fit, fits or does not fit. new information to explain in terms of the established hypothesis and the corresponding model. However, the most effective and reliable method for testing working hypotheses and models is the method of socio-psychological experiment.

3. Methods of socio-psychological control. A special place in the arsenal of means of social psychology, along with methods of influence and research, is occupied by methods of socio-psychological control. Their specificity lies in the fact that they are applied, as a rule, firstly, on the basis of already available primary information about the object of observation; secondly, they go beyond purely research procedures; thirdly, they combine the methods of diagnostics and directed influence into one whole, subordinated to practical tasks.

Methods of socio-psychological control can be both an element of the research process, for example, an experiment, and have independent significance. At the same time, the level of control is different: from simple one-act observation of a particular socio-psychological process to systematic observation, which involves regular removal of information from the object and measurements of its various parameters. Such is, for example, practice of socio-psychological monitoring.

Even more high level control is application of a whole range of methods, starting from diagnostics and ending with methods of purposeful corrective and regulatory influence on the object under examination.

Such is, for example, the practice of diagnosing (in this case, for the purpose of examination) and regulating the socio-psychological climate of the team (SPC). It includes the diagnosis of the entire set of components that make up the socio-psychological conditions of the life of a given team (its SPC, leadership style, leadership typology, the hierarchy of the main socio-psychological disagreements in the structure of both interpersonal and business relations between team members), as well as a system measures to correct the horizontal and vertical structures of intra-collective relations and thus the regulation of the SEC.

Control questions:

1. What are the main directions (orientations) in modern Western psychology.

2. Name the main postulates of the behavioral approach in social psychology, what theories implement this paradigm.

3. Describe the features of the psychoanalytic approach.

4. What is the essence of the cognitivist orientation? What theories can you name, what are their main ideas?

5. What fundamental difference interactionism from other branches of social psychology?

6. What are the main ideas of interactionism?

7. What is the most important feature interactions (according to G. Mead)?

8. What methods does socio-psychological science use?