Section 2. Main directions of development of world regions at the turn of the century (20th – 21st centuries)
Topic No. 2.1 Western countries at the end of the 20th century.
Euro-Atlantic civilization in the second half of the 20th – early 21st centuries.
The concept of Atlanticism was substantiated by the American geopolitician Nikolaus Speakman. According to his idea, the role of the Mediterranean Sea as the distribution area of the ancient Roman-Hellenistic civilization passed to Atlantic Ocean, on the western and eastern banks of which live peoples connected by a common origin, culture, and common values. This, in his opinion, predetermined the rapprochement of the countries of the Atlantic space under the leadership of the United States as the strongest and most dynamic of them.
The foundations of “Atlantic solidarity,” laid during the Second World War, were strengthened after the United States adopted the Marshall Plan in 1947 to help restore the economies of Western Europe. The commonality of principles, values, and interests in maintaining the stability and prosperity of the countries of the North Atlantic zone of peace was recorded in 1949 in the agreement on the creation of a military-political alliance - the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
The strategic interests of the ruling elites on both sides of the Atlantic in the conditions of " cold war" coincided. This encouraged them, despite economic rivalry, to coordinate their policies. The term “Atlanticism” entered the political lexicon after 1961, when US President John Kennedy put forward the so-called Great Project for the creation of the Atlantic Community, which involved strengthening the unity of the countries of North America and Western Europe. The states of the Euro-Atlantic civilization included countries such as the USA, Great Britain and its “white” dominions (Canada, Australia), as well as France. The military-political cooperation of these countries with other continental states of Western Europe laid the foundations for a closer union. With the adoption by Germany and Italy after the war, and then by the Eastern European states, of liberal democratic principles for organizing political life, the scope of “Euro-Atlanticism” expanded even more.
Countries of Western Europe and the USA in the first post-war decades
In the 1960-1970s. In the Euro-Atlantic countries, a society emerged that was called a “welfare society” in Western Europe, and a “welfare society” in the United States. It was first stage economic and social policy Western countries after the Second World War. Although it had its own characteristics in different states, its common features included: social protection of workers, a high standard of living for the majority of the population, advanced industry and science, etc.
The “welfare society” was characterized by stable, relatively crisis-free economic development. Moreover, its pace in Western Europe in the 1950s-1970s. were the highest in the entire 20th century. Germany, Italy, Holland, Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, Finland demonstrated an “economic miracle”, that is, stable economic growth that lasted over a decade (about 5% per year), a significant increase in living standards, and an almost complete solution to the problems of poverty and unemployment. Japan's successes were especially impressive. Country rising sun achieved the highest rates of development in the entire history of mankind - more than 10% of GDP growth per year (at the end of the twentieth century they were surpassed by China).
Two world wars, which required the utmost effort from their participants, led to an increase in the role of the state in the economy. Centralized distribution of the most important resources, food and labor, was introduced everywhere. Post-war economic recovery also required government intervention. In particular, it was necessary to create jobs for millions of demobilized military personnel, to ensure conversion - the transfer of the military industry to peaceful lines, that is, to the production of civilian products.
In most countries, except the USA, private business was unable to solve the accumulated problems. In Great Britain, the Labor Party, led by Clement Attlee (in power in 1945-1950), nationalized the Bank of England, railways, civil aviation, coal, metallurgical and gas industries. Their modernization was carried out at the expense of the state. Former owners compensation was paid.
Similar measures, even on a larger scale, were implemented in France. Thanks to the activities of coalition governments, in which socialists and communists played a major role, during the period 1954-1958. The state owned 97% of the coal industry, 95% of the gas industry, 80% of the aviation industry, and 40% of the automobile industry. In total, the state owned about 36% of all national property. A strict protectionist policy was pursued. The modernization of nationalized industries made it possible to ensure an almost twofold increase in the volume of industrial output. In the future, the state planned to help private firms strengthen their competitiveness. The goal was to create an “open economy” and abolish protectionist measures. Then, also with state participation, large corporations began to be created that were capable of operating on the scale of an integrating Europe.
In Italy, in difficult post-war conditions, the state took upon itself the protection of enterprises and banks from bankruptcy. The leading role in the country's economy was played by the state corporation Iran, preserved from the time of Mussolini. The Christian Democrats party has been in power since the 1950s. developed medium-term national programs for economic development and overcoming the backwardness of the southern regions of the country. In the early 1960s. The electrical industry became state property.
The result of the transformations was the formation of a mostly Western European countries mixed economy. Private property remained, but many banks and large industrial enterprises became the property of the state and were managed by it on a planned basis.
The planning system was different from that adopted in socialist countries. In the USSR and Eastern Europe, plans were of a directive nature (that is, they were considered a law that was binding) and were developed for the entire economy, covering the main indicators of its development. In Western countries, plans were indicative, that is, they gave only general, approximate guidelines for development, taking into account possible fluctuations in demand and supply. They were not mandatory for private large corporations, medium and small businesses operating according to the laws of the market. At the same time, the state, using the levers of tax policy, distributing orders, changing the percentage of income received on bank deposits, influenced private sector. He was encouraged to reduce or increase the rate of production growth depending on the state of the market. All higher value purchased marketing research, allowing for fairly accurate forecasts of supply and demand.
Socially oriented market economy. The most important source of stability in leading industrial countries has been the formation of a socially oriented market economy. It took shape over a long period of time; its formation required politicians to reconsider many previously existing views.
In the USA, the foundations of a socially oriented market economy were created during the years of the “New Deal” by President F.D. Roosevelt. After his death in April 1945, the presidency was taken by G. Truman, who won the presidential election of 1948. Most of the supporters of the “new course” were expelled from the government. However, social programs have received further development. Thus, after demobilization, former military personnel were provided with benefits when entering higher educational institutions, and received loans to build their own housing and create small businesses. G. Truman defended the idea of pursuing a “fair course,” that is, achieving full employment, providing low-income people with cheap apartments, and increasing the degree of equality in society.
Further activation of social policy is associated with the name of the young Democratic President J. Kennedy (in power in 1961-1963). His “new frontier” program included improving health and education systems. The goal was set to completely eliminate illiteracy. The provision of assistance to the population of areas recognized as “zones of economic decline” has begun. After Kennedy's tragic death in 1963, the highest government post was occupied by Vice President, Democrat Lyndon Johnson. He won the 1964 election on the slogan of creating a “great society” or “welfare state” in which there would be no poverty, racial inequality and misery. In 1964, the Civil Rights Act was passed, which prohibited any form of discrimination in the United States. Johnson's program brought significant results. From 1960 to 1970, the share of families living below the official established threshold poverty fell by half - from 24.7 to 12%. The Vietnam War prevented the complete eradication of poverty.
During the economic recovery of West Germany after World War II, under the leadership of Economics Minister Ludwig Erhard, reforms were also carried out that led to the creation of a socially oriented market economy in this country. The government proceeded from the fact that the hardships of restoration should be evenly distributed among all segments of the population, since overcoming the consequences of the war is a national task.
During the financial reform of 1948, which stabilized the German mark, pensions and salaries were exchanged in a 1:1 ratio, half of the deposits could be exchanged at the rate of 1:10, the temporarily frozen second half - at the rate of 1:20. Taking into account the fact that the deposits belonged mainly to the propertied, this measure increased the degree of social equality. Banks' financial obligations were cancelled, 9/10 of enterprises' debts were written off. Having received cash to pay salaries at a time, the enterprises then had to exist by selling their products. Social partnership was actively introduced. According to the 1951 law, trade union representatives received up to 50% of seats on the supervisory boards of leading mining and metallurgical companies, then so-called worker shares appeared, providing corporate workers with a share in the profits.
The measures taken created incentives for employees to increase labor productivity. This laid the foundation for the German “economic miracle” - the accelerated development of the 1950-1960s, which returned Germany to one of the leading places in the world economy.
In other countries of Western Europe, social policy was also given importance great value. As a rule, the authorities met the demands of the trade union movement. In England, Labor repealed a law passed in 1927 that limited the rights of trade unions. In 1948, laws on the creation of state insurance and health care systems and on increasing pensions came into force. Construction of municipal housing for low-income people began. In France, a guaranteed minimum was introduced in 1950 wages, which since 1952 automatically increases taking into account the inflation index. A 40-hour work week with two days off was established, and the minimum vacation was increased from two to three weeks.
A special and, as is commonly believed, the most advanced model of a socially oriented economy has developed in Sweden. Subsequently, it was adopted by most Scandinavian countries. In Sweden, from 1931 to 1976, the Social Democrats, supported by trade unions, were the leading force in government. Labor relations were built on the basis of social partnership. The Swedish Central Trade Union Organization (TSOT) and the Swedish Employers' Association (OSE) entered into an agreement back in 1938 on the peaceful resolution of labor conflicts. Since 1972, trade union representatives have served on the boards of directors of private companies and banks.
The main features of the “Swedish model,” as it began to be called in the 1960s, were the combination of a developed economy with high level consumption, employment and the world's most advanced social security system. There were no mass nationalizations in the country. The majority of enterprises remained privately owned (approx. 90%). At the same time, a significant part of the income produced was redistributed by the state. The tax rate for high incomes was 70%.
By the end of the twentieth century. the state redistributed 2/3 of the GDP produced (for most developed countries this figure was less than 1/2). Most of the budget funds were allocated for social purposes. Health care, education, and utilities became practically free, pensions and unemployment benefits were the highest in the world (about 80% of wages).
By agreement between TsOPSH and ORSH, the principle of equal pay for equal work was adopted. He assumed that wage rates for each category of employees should be uniform and gradually increase throughout the country. Enterprises that received little profit could not constantly increase wages and were forced to follow the path of modernization, development high technology or went broke. This, however, did not lead to an increase in unemployment. Organization of public works, government programs improving the skills of the workforce and helping workers move from “zones of economic decline” to prosperous areas made it possible to ensure almost full employment.
As a result of the reforms carried out in Sweden, a high degree of social equality was achieved. By the beginning of the 21st century. The income gap between 10% of the poorest and richest families in developed countries averaged 1:10, and in Sweden -1:5.4.
In general, the “Swedish model” has largely confirmed the correctness of the ideas
D. Keynes - the growth in the standard of living of the bulk of the population increased effective demand, which led to sustainable economic growth.
Further, the interaction of peoples, as an integral factor, has increased many times over. A new world order based on the unity of rights and responsibilities is being formed. In this case, you should pay attention to the following.
- The development of science, technology and technology has reached new level.
- There has been a transition of production to a new type, the socio-political results of which are the property of not only one country.
- Global economic ties have deepened.
- Global connections have emerged, covering the main spheres of life of peoples and states.
All this led to an updated picture of Society.
Globalization
The modern world gives the impression of being pluralistic, which sharply distinguishes it from the world order of the Cold War period. In the modern multipolar world, there are several main centers of international politics: Europe, China, the Asia-Pacific region (APR), South Asia (India), Latin America (Brazil) and the USA.
Western Europe
After many years of Europe being in the shadow of the United States, its powerful rise began. At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. The countries of the European Union, whose population is approximately 350 million people, produce goods and services worth just over $5.5 trillion per year, that is, more than the United States (just under $5.5 trillion, 270 million people). These achievements became the basis for the revival of Europe as a special political and spiritual force, the formation of a new European community. This gave the Europeans a reason to reconsider their positions in relation to the United States: to move from a “little brother - older brother” type of relationship to an equal partnership.
East Europe
Russia
In addition to Europe, a huge influence on destinies modern world provides the Asia-Pacific region. The dynamically developing Asia-Pacific region covers a triangle from the Russian Far East and Korea in the northeast to Australia in the south and Pakistan in the west. Approximately half of humanity lives in this triangle and there are such dynamic countries as Japan, China, Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, Malaysia, and Singapore.
If in 1960 the total GNP of the countries of this region reached 7.8% of world GNP, then by 1982 it doubled, and by the beginning of the 21st century. amounted to about 20% of the world's gross national product (that is, approximately equal to the share of the EU or the USA). The Asia-Pacific region has become one of the main centers of global economic power, which raises the question of expanding its political influence. Rise to Southeast Asia was largely associated with the policy of protectionism and the protection of the national economy.
China
In the Asia-Pacific region, the incredibly dynamic growth of China attracts attention: in fact, the GNP of the so-called “greater China”, which includes China itself, Taiwan, and Singapore, exceeds that of Japan and is practically approaching the GNP of the United States.
The influence of the Chinese is not limited to “Greater China”; it partly extends to the countries of the Chinese diaspora in Asia; in the countries of Southeast Asia they constitute the most dynamic element. For example, by the end of the 20th century. The Chinese made up 1% of the Philippine population, but controlled 35% of sales of local firms. In Indonesia, the Chinese accounted for 2-3% of the total population, but about 70% of local private capital was concentrated in their hands. The entire East Asian economy outside of Japan and Korea is essentially the Chinese economy. An agreement between China and the countries of Southeast Asia on the creation of a common economic zone recently came into force.
Middle East
In Latin America, liberal economic policy in the 1980-1990s led to economic growth. At the same time, the subsequent use of strict liberal recipes for modernization, which did not provide for sufficient social guarantees when carrying out market reforms, increased social instability, contributed to relative stagnation and an increase in the external debt of countries Latin America.
It is the reaction to this stagnation that explains the fact that in Venezuela in 1999 the “Bolivarians” led by Colonel Hugo Chavez won the elections. In the same year, a constitution was adopted in a referendum, which guaranteed the population a large number of social rights, including the right to work and rest, free education and medical care. Since January 2000, the country has acquired a new name - the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. Along with the traditional branches of government, two more have been formed here - electoral and civil. Hugo Chavez, using the support of a significant part of the population, chose a strict anti-American course.
After a decade of stability in the political life of Western European countries, the time has come for social conflicts. In the 1960s, performances became more frequent different layers population under various slogans.
In France in 1961 -1962. demonstrations and strikes took place (over 12 million people took part in the general political strike) with demands to end the rebellion of ultra-colonialist forces in Algeria (these forces opposed granting independence to Algeria). In Italy, there were mass protests by workers against the intensification of neo-fascists, and the movement of workers, putting forward both economic and political demands, expanded. In England, the number of strikes in 1962 increased 5.5 times compared to the previous year. The struggle for higher wages also included “white collar” workers - highly qualified workers and white-collar workers.
The high point of social protests during this period was the events of 1968 in France.
Dates and events:
- May 3- the beginning of student protests in Paris demanding democratization of the higher education system.
- May 6- police siege of the Sorbonne University.
- May 9-10- students build barricades.
- May 13- mass demonstration of workers in Paris; the beginning of a general strike; by May 24, the number of strikers across the country exceeded 10 million people; among the slogans carried by the demonstrators were the following: “Farewell, de Gaulle!”, “Ten years is enough!”; workers at the automobile plant near Mantes and the Renault factories occupied their factories.
- May 22- the issue of trust in the government was raised in the National Assembly.
- May 30- President Charles de Gaulle dissolved the National Assembly and called new parliamentary elections.
- June 6-7- the strike participants went to work, insisting on raising wages by 10-19%, increasing vacations, and expanding trade union rights.
These events turned out to be a serious test for the authorities. In April 1969, President de Gaulle put forward a bill to reorganize local government to a referendum, hoping to get confirmation that the French still supported it. But 52% of voters rejected the bill. Immediately after this, de Gaulle resigned. In June 1969, a representative of the Gaullist Party, J. Pompidou, was elected as the new president of the country. He defined the main direction of his course with the motto “Continuity and Dialogue.”
1968 was marked by serious political events in other countries. This fall in Northern Ireland's civil rights movement intensifies.
Historical background
In the 1960s, the following situation arose in Northern Ireland. According to religious affiliation, the population was divided into two communities - Protestant (950 thousand people) and Catholic (498 thousand). The Unionist Party, which ruled since 1921, consisted mainly of Protestants and advocated maintaining ties with Great Britain. The opposition to it was made up of several parties supported by Catholics and advocating self-government for Northern Ireland and the unification of Ireland into one state. Key positions in society were occupied by Protestants; Catholics were more often at the lower levels of the social ladder. In the mid-1960s, unemployment in Northern Ireland was 6.1%, compared with 1.4% in the UK as a whole. Moreover, unemployment among Catholics was 2.5 times higher than among Protestants.
In 1968, clashes between representatives of the Catholic population and the police escalated into an armed conflict, which included Protestant and Catholic extremist groups. The government sent troops into Ulster. The crisis, now worsening and now weakening, dragged on for three decades.
In conditions of social tension in the late 1960s, neo-fascist parties and organizations became more active in a number of Western European countries. In Germany, success in elections to the Landtags (state parliaments) in 1966-1968. achieved by the National Democratic Party (NDP), led by A. von Thadden, which managed to attract young people into its ranks by creating organizations such as the “Young National Democrats” and the “National Democratic Union of Higher Education”. In Italy, the Italian Social Movement (the party was founded by supporters of fascism back in 1947), the New Order organization, etc. expanded their activities. Battle Groups“Neo-fascists destroyed the premises of left-wing parties and democratic organizations. At the end of 1969, the head of the ISD, D. Almirante, said in an interview: “Fascist youth organizations are preparing for a civil war in Italy...”
Social tension and intensified confrontation in society found a special response among young people. Young people's protests for the democratization of education and spontaneous protests against social injustice have become more frequent. In West Germany, Italy, France and other countries, youth groups emerged that took extreme right or extreme left positions. Both of them used terrorist methods in their struggle against the existing order.
Ultra-left groups in Italy and Germany carried out explosions at stations and on trains, hijacked planes, etc. One of the most well-known organizations The “red brigades” that appeared in Italy in the early 1970s became of this kind. They proclaimed the ideas of Marxism-Leninism, the Chinese Cultural Revolution and the experience of urban guerrilla warfare (guerrilla warfare) as the basis of their activities. A notorious example of their actions was the kidnapping and murder of a famous political figure, the chairman of the Christian Democratic Party, Aldo Moro.
In Germany, the “new right” created “national-revolutionary base groups” that advocated the unification of the country by force. IN different countries the ultra-right, who held nationalist views, carried out reprisals against people of other beliefs, nationalities, faith, and skin color.
Social Democrats and social society
A wave of social protests in the 1960s led to political change in most Western European countries. In many of them, social democratic and socialist parties came to power.
In Germany at the end of 1966, representatives of the Social Democrats entered the coalition government with the CDU/CSU, and since 1969 they themselves formed a government in a bloc with the Free Democratic Party (FDP). In Austria in 1970-1971. For the first time in the country's history, the Socialist Party came to power. In Italy, the basis of the post-war governments was the Christian Democratic Party (CDP), which entered into a coalition with either left or right parties. In the 1960s, left-wing social democrats and socialists became its partners. The leader of the Social Democrats D. Saragat was elected president of the country (1964).
Despite the differences in situations in different countries, the policies of the Social Democrats during this period had some common features. They considered their main, “never-ending task” to be the creation social society, whose main values were freedom, justice, and solidarity. In this society, they saw themselves as representatives of the interests not only of workers, but also of other segments of the population. In the 1970s and 1980s, these parties began to rely on the so-called “new middle strata” - the scientific and technical intelligentsia, office workers. In the economic sphere, the Social Democrats advocated a combination of different forms of ownership - private, state, etc. The key provision of their programs was the thesis of state regulation of the economy. The attitude towards the market was expressed by the motto “Competition - as much as possible, planning - as much as necessary.” Particular importance was attached to the “democratic participation” of workers in resolving issues of organizing production, setting prices, and wages.
In Sweden, where the Social Democrats were in power for several decades, the concept of “functional socialism” was formulated. It was assumed that the private owner should not be deprived of his property, but should be gradually involved in the performance of public functions through the redistribution of profits. The state in Sweden owned about 6% of production capacity, but the share of public consumption in the gross national product (GNP) in the early 1970s was about 30%.
Social democratic and socialist governments allocated significant funds for education, health care, and social security. To reduce the unemployment rate, special programs for training and retraining of the workforce were adopted.
Government social expenditures, % of GDP
Progress in solving social problems was one of the most significant achievements of social democratic governments. However, the negative consequences of their policies soon became apparent: excessive “overregulation”, bureaucratization of public and economic management, overstrain of the state budget. A part of the population began to develop a psychology of social dependency, when people, without working, expected to receive as much in the form of social assistance as those who worked hard. These “costs” drew criticism from conservative forces.
An important aspect of the activities of the social democratic governments of Western European countries was the change in foreign policy. Particularly significant, truly historic steps in this direction were made in the Federal Republic of Germany. The government that came to power in 1969, led by Chancellor W. Brandt (SPD) and Vice-Chancellor and Foreign Minister W. Scheel (FDP), made a fundamental turn in “Eastern policy”. The essence of the new approach was revealed by W. Brandt in his first speech in the Bundestag as Chancellor: “The Federal Republic of Germany needs peaceful relations in full meaning these words also with the peoples Soviet Union, and with all the peoples of the European East. We are ready to make an honest attempt to reach mutual understanding so that the consequences of the disaster that the criminal cabal has brought upon Europe can be overcome.”
Willy Brandt (real name - Herbert Karl Frahm) (1913-1992). After graduating from high school, he began working at a newspaper. In 1930 he joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany. In 1933-1945. was in exile in Norway, and then in Sweden. In 1945, he participated in the re-establishment of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, and soon became one of its leading figures. In 1957-1966. served as mayor of West Berlin. In 1969-1974. - Chancellor of Germany. In 1971 he was awarded Nobel Prize peace. Since 1976 - Chairman of the Socialist International ( international organization social democratic and socialist parties, founded in 1951).
Dates and events
- Spring 1970- the first meetings of their leaders in the years of existence of the two German states - W. Brandt and W. Stoff in Erfurt and Kassel. August 1970 - an agreement was signed between the USSR and Germany.
- December 1970- an agreement was signed between Poland and Germany. Both treaties contained obligations of the parties to refrain from the threat or use of force and recognized the inviolability of the borders of Poland, Germany and the GDR.
- December 1972- an agreement on the foundations of relations between the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany was signed.
- December 1973- the agreement between Germany and Czechoslovakia recognized the Munich Agreements of 1938 as “insignificant” and confirmed the inviolability of the borders between the two states.
The “Eastern Treaties” caused a sharp political struggle in Germany. They were opposed by the CDU/CSU bloc, right-wing parties and organizations. Neo-Nazis called them “agreements for the sale of Reich territory,” claiming that they would lead to the “Bolshevisation” of Germany. Communists and other left-wing parties, representatives of democratic organizations, and influential figures of the evangelical church spoke in favor of the treaties.
These treaties, as well as the quadrilateral agreements on West Berlin, signed by representatives of the USSR, USA, Great Britain and France in September 1971, created a real basis for expanding international contacts and mutual understanding in Europe. On November 22, 1972, a preparatory meeting for holding International conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe.
The fall of authoritarian regimes in Portugal, Greece, Spain
The wave of social uprisings and political change that began in the 1960s reached southwestern and southern Europe. In 1974-1975 three states at once experienced a transition from authoritarian regimes to democracy.
Portugal. As a result of the April revolution of 1974, the authoritarian regime was overthrown in this country. Political revolution carried out by the Movement armed forces in the capital, led to a change in local government. The basis of the first post-revolutionary governments (1974-1975) was a bloc of leaders of the Armed Forces Movement and Communists. The policy statement of the Council of National Salvation put forward the tasks of complete de-fascistization and establishment of democratic order, immediate decolonization of Portugal's African possessions, carrying out agrarian reform, adopting a new constitution for the country, and improving the living conditions of workers. The first transformations of the new government were the nationalization of the largest enterprises and banks and the introduction of workers' control.
In the course of the political struggle that then unfolded, forces of different orientations came to power, including the right-wing bloc of the Democratic Alliance (1979-1983), which tried to curtail the transformations that had begun earlier. The governments of the Socialist Party and the Social Democratic Party, which were in power in the 1980-1990s, founded by M. Soares, took measures to strengthen the democratic system and Portugal's entry into European economic and political organizations.
In Greece in 1974, after the fall of the military dictatorship established in 1967 (or the “regime of the colonels”), power passed to the civilian government led by K. Karamanlis. Political and civil liberties were restored. Governments right party New Democracy (1974-1981, 1989-1993, 2004-2009) and the Panhellenic Socialist Movement - PASOK (1981-1989, 1993-2004, since 2009), with differences in domestic and foreign policies, generally contributed to the democratization of the country, its inclusion in the processes of European integration.
In Spain after the death of F. Franco in 1975, King Juan Carlos I became the head of state. With his approval, a gradual transition from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one began. According to political scientists, this process combined a “democratic break with Francoism” and reforms. The government led by A. Suarez restored democratic freedoms and lifted the ban on political parties. It managed to conclude agreements with the most influential, including opposition, left-wing parties.
In December 1978, a constitution was adopted in a referendum, proclaiming Spain a social and legal state. The aggravation of the economic and political situation in the early 1980s led to the defeat of the Union of Democratic Center led by A. Suarez. As a result of the parliamentary elections of 1982, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) came to power, its leader F. Gonzalez headed the country's government. The party strove for social stability and achieving agreement between different layers of Spanish society. Special attention Its programs focused on measures to increase production and create jobs. In the first half of the 1980s, the government carried out a number of important social measures (shortening the working week, increasing vacations, adopting laws expanding workers' rights, etc.). The policies of the Socialists, who were in power until 1996, completed the process of peaceful transition from dictatorship to a democratic society in Spain.
1980s: wave of neoconservatism
By the mid-1970s, in most Western European countries, the activities of social democratic and socialist governments increasingly encountered insurmountable problems. The situation became even more complicated as a result of the deep crisis of 1974-1975. He showed that serious changes are needed, a structural restructuring of the economy. There were no resources for it under the existing economic and social policy; state regulation of the economy did not work.
In the current situation, conservatives tried to give their answer to the challenge of the time. Their orientation toward a free market economy, private enterprise, and individual activity was well aligned with the objective need for broad investments (investment cash) into production.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, conservatives came to power in many Western countries. In 1979, the Conservative Party won the parliamentary elections in Great Britain, and the government was headed by M. Thatcher (the party remained in power until 1997). In 1980 and 1984 Republican R. Reagan was elected President of the United States. In 1982, a coalition of the CDU/CSU and the FDP came to power in Germany, and G. Kohl took over as chancellor. The long-term rule of Social Democrats in the Nordic countries was interrupted. They were defeated in the 1976 elections in Sweden and Denmark, and in 1981 in Norway.
It was not for nothing that the conservative leaders who won during this period were called neoconservatives. They showed that they know how to look forward and are capable of change. They were distinguished by a good understanding of the situation, assertiveness, political flexibility, and appeal to broad sections of the population. Thus, British conservatives, led by M. Thatcher, came out in defense of the “true values of British society,” which included hard work and frugality, and disdain for lazy people; independence, self-reliance and the desire for individual success; respect for laws, religion, family and society; promoting the preservation and enhancement of Britain's national greatness. New slogans were also used. After winning the 1987 election, M. Thatcher stated: “Our policy is that everyone with an income should become an owner... We are building a democracy of owners.”
Margaret Thatcher (Roberts) was born into a merchant family. From a young age she joined the Conservative Party. She studied chemistry and later law at Oxford University. In 1957 she was elected to parliament. In 1970 she took a ministerial post in the Conservative government. In 1975 she headed the Conservative Party. In 1979-1990 - Prime Minister of Great Britain (set a record in terms of duration of continuous stay in power) political history Great Britain XX century). In recognition of her services to the country, she was awarded the title of Baroness.
The main components of the neoconservative policy were: curtailing government regulation economics, course towards a free market economy; reduction in social spending; reduction in income taxes (which contributed to the activation entrepreneurial activity). In social policy, neoconservatives rejected the principles of equality and redistribution of profits (M. Thatcher even promised to “end socialism in Britain” in one of her speeches). They resorted to the concept of a “two-thirds society”, in which the well-being or even “prosperity” of two thirds of the population is considered the norm, while the remaining third lives in poverty. The first steps of the neoconservatives in the field of foreign policy led to a new round of the arms race and an aggravation of the international situation.
Subsequently, in connection with the beginning of perestroika in the USSR, M. S. Gorbachev’s proclamation of the ideas of new political thinking in international relations, Western European leaders entered into a dialogue with the Soviet leadership.
At the turn of the century
The last decade of the 20th century. was filled with life-changing events. As a result of the collapse of the USSR and the Eastern bloc, the situation in Europe and the world radically changed. The unification of Germany that took place in connection with these changes (1990), after more than forty years of existence of two German states, became one of the most important milestones in modern history German people. G. Kohl, who was the Chancellor of Germany during this period, went down in history as the “unifier of Germany.”
Feelings of triumph of ideals and a dominant role Western world arose in the 1990s among many leaders of Western European countries. This, however, did not eliminate their own internal problems in these countries.
In the second half of the 1990s, the position of conservatives in a number of countries weakened, and representatives of liberal, socialist parties came to power. In Great Britain, the government was headed by Labor leader Anthony Blair (1997-2007). Social Democrat Gerhard Schröder was elected Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1998. However, in 2005, he was replaced by a representative of the CDU/CSU bloc, Angela Merkel, the first female chancellor in the country's history. And in Britain in 2010, the conservatives formed a coalition government. Thanks to such a change and renewal of power and political course, self-regulation of modern European society occurs.
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Aleksashkina L.N. / General history. XX - early XXI centuries.
Yugoslavia's special path.
In Yugoslavia, the communists, who led the anti-fascist struggle, took power in 1945. Their Croatian leader, Josip Broz Tito, became the country's president. Tito's desire for independence led in 1948 to a rupture in relations between Yugoslavia and the USSR. Tens of thousands of Moscow supporters were repressed. J.V. Stalin ordered the deployment of anti-Yugoslav propaganda, but did not agree to military intervention.
Soviet-Yugoslav relations were normalized after Stalin's death, but Yugoslavia continued to follow its own special path. At enterprises, management functions were carried out by labor collectives through elected workers' councils. The focus on market relations has led to an increase in the production of consumer goods. IN agriculture almost half of the sector was made up of individual peasants.
The situation in Yugoslavia was complicated by its multinational composition and the uneven development of the republics that were part of the Federation. In foreign policy, Yugoslavia adhered to neutrality and became one of the initiators of the creation of the Non-Aligned Movement, an influential international organization during the Cold War.
Perestroika in the USSR caused similar processes in Eastern European countries. Meanwhile, the Soviet leadership by the end of the 80s. refused to preserve the regimes that existed in these countries, on the contrary, calling on them to democratize. The leadership of most ruling parties has changed. But the new leadership's attempts to carry out reforms, as in the Soviet Union, were unsuccessful. The economic situation worsened, and population flight to the West became widespread. Opposition forces formed, demonstrations and strikes took place everywhere. As a result of the demonstrations of October - November 1989 in the GDR, the government resigned, and on November 9 the destruction of the Berlin Wall began. In 1990, the unification of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany took place.
In most countries, communists were removed from power. The ruling parties dissolved themselves or transformed into social democratic ones. Elections were held in which former oppositionists won. These events were called “velvet revolutions”. However, revolutions were not “velvet” everywhere. In Romania, opponents of head of state Nicolae Ceausescu staged an uprising in December 1989, resulting in the deaths of many people. Ceausescu and his wife were killed.
Dramatic events took place in Yugoslavia, where parties opposed to the communists won elections in all republics except Serbia and Montenegro. In 1991, Slovenia, Croatia and Macedonia declared independence. In Croatia, war immediately broke out between Serbs and Croats, as the Serbs feared the persecution that had taken place during World War II at the hands of the Croatian Ustasha fascists. Initially, the Serbs created their own republics, but by 1995 they were captured by the Croats with the support of Western countries, and most Serbs were exterminated or expelled.
In 1992, Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence. Serbia and Montenegro formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY).
An ethnic war broke out between Serbs, Croats and Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The armed forces of NATO countries intervened on the side of the Bosnian Muslims and Croats. The war continued until the end of 1995, when the Serbs were forced to succumb to pressure from superior NATO forces.
The state of Bosnia and Herzegovina is now divided into two parts: the Republika Srpska and the Muslim-Croat federation. The Serbs lost part of their lands.
In 1998, open conflict broke out between Albanians and Serbs in Kosovo, which was part of Serbia. The extermination and expulsion of the Serbs by Albanian extremists forced the Yugoslav authorities to enter into an armed struggle against them. However, in 1999, NATO began bombing Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav army was forced to leave Kosovo, whose territory was occupied by NATO troops. Most of the Serbian population was destroyed and expelled from the region. On February 17, 2008, Kosovo, with Western support, unilaterally and illegally declared independence.
After the overthrow of President Slobodan Milosevic in 2000 during the “color revolution”, disintegration continued in the FRY. In 2003, the confederal state of Serbia and Montenegro was formed. In 2006, Montenegro separated and two independent states: Serbia and Montenegro.
The collapse of Czechoslovakia occurred peacefully. After a referendum, it split in 1993 into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
After political changes, transformations began in all Eastern European countries in the economy and other spheres of social life. Everywhere they abandoned the planned economy and moved to the restoration of market relations. Privatization was carried out, and foreign capital gained a strong position in the economy. The first transformations went down in history as “shock therapy”, as they were associated with a drop in production, mass unemployment, inflation, etc. Particularly radical changes in this regard took place in Poland. Social stratification has increased everywhere, crime and corruption have increased.
By the end of the 90s. The situation in most countries has stabilized somewhat. Inflation was overcome and economic growth began. The Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland have achieved some success. Big role Foreign investment played a role in this. Traditional mutually beneficial ties with Russia and other post-Soviet states were gradually restored. But the global economic crisis that began in 2008 had devastating consequences for the economies of Eastern European countries.
In foreign policy, all countries of Eastern Europe are oriented towards the West, most of them in beginning of XXI V. joined NATO and the EU. The internal political situation in these countries is characterized by a change in power between right and left parties. However, their policies both within the country and in the international arena largely coincide.
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. How did the communists come to power in Eastern European countries? What changes did they make?
2. What are the reasons for the crises in Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia? How were they resolved?
3. How did Eastern European countries develop in the 50s - 80s? What was Yugoslavia's special path? What are the reasons for the growing crisis in the socialist countries of Europe?
4. What are “velvet revolutions”? What changes occurred in the countries of Eastern Europe at the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century?
5. Was it inevitable, in your opinion, the fall of communist regimes in Eastern European countries? Why did similar events not happen in the socialist countries of Asia?
§ 102. Countries of Eastern Europe in the second half of the twentieth century.
The beginning of the construction of socialism.
During the Second World War, the authority of leftist forces, primarily communists, increased significantly in the countries of Eastern Europe. In a number of states they led anti-fascist uprisings (Bulgaria, Romania), in others they led the partisan struggle. In 1945 - 1946 In all countries, new constitutions were adopted, monarchies were abolished, power passed to people's governments, large enterprises were nationalized and agrarian reforms were carried out. In the elections, the communists took strong positions in parliaments. They called for even more radical changes, which they opposed
bourgeois democratic parties. At the same time, the process of merging communists and social democrats with the dominance of the former unfolded everywhere.
The presence of Soviet troops in the countries of Eastern Europe provided powerful support to the communists. In the context of the outbreak of the Cold War, a bet was placed on accelerating transformations. This largely corresponded to the sentiments of the majority of the population, among whom the authority of the Soviet Union was great, and many saw the construction of socialism as a way to quickly overcome post-war difficulties and further create a just society. The USSR provided these states with enormous material assistance.
In the 1947 elections, the Communists won a majority of seats in the Polish Sejm. The Seimas elected a communist as president B. Beruta. In Czechoslovakia in February 1948, the communists, through multi-day mass rallies of workers, achieved the creation of a new government in which they played a leading role. Soon the President E. Benosh resigned, and the leader of the Communist Party was elected as the new president K. Gottwald.
By 1949, power was in the hands of communist parties in all countries of the region. In October 1949, the GDR was formed. In some countries, the multi-party system has been preserved, but in many ways it has become a formality.
CMEA and ATS.
With the formation of the countries of "people's democracy" the process of formation of the world socialist system began. Economic ties between the USSR and the people's democracies were carried out at the first stage in the form of a bilateral foreign trade agreement. At the same time, the USSR strictly controlled the activities of the governments of these countries.
Since 1947, this control has been exercised by the heir to the Comintern Cominform. began to play a great role in expanding and strengthening economic ties Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), created in 1949. Its members were Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia, Albania later joined. The creation of CMEA was a definite response to the creation of NATO. The goals of CMEA were to unite and coordinate efforts in developing the economies of the member countries of the Commonwealth.
In the political field, the creation of the Warsaw Pact Organization (WTO) in 1955 was of great importance. Its creation was a response to the admission of Germany to NATO. In accordance with the terms of the treaty, its participants undertook, in the event of an armed attack on any of them, to provide immediate assistance to the attacked states by all means, including the use of armed force. A unified military command was created, joint military exercises were conducted, weapons and troop organization were unified.
Development of the countries of “people's democracy” in the 50s - 80s of the twentieth century.
By the mid-50s. xx century As a result of accelerated industrialization, significant economic potential has been created in the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe. But the policy of preferential development of heavy industry with insignificant investments in agriculture and the production of consumer goods led to a decline in living standards.
Stalin's death (March 1953) raised hopes for political change. The leadership of the GDR in June 1953 proclaimed a “new course”, which provided for the strengthening of law and order and an increase in the production of consumer goods. But the simultaneous increase in workers’ production standards served as an impetus for the events of June 17, 1953, when in Berlin and other major cities demonstrations began, during which economic and political demands were put forward, including the holding of free elections. With the help of Soviet troops, the GDR police suppressed these protests, which the country's leadership assessed as an attempt at a “fascist putsch.” However, after these events, wider production of consumer goods began and prices decreased.
Decisions of the XX Congress of the CPSU on the need to take into account national characteristics each country were formally approved by the leadership of all communist parties, but the new course was not implemented everywhere. In Poland and Hungary, the dogmatic policy of the leadership led to a sharp aggravation of socio-economic contradictions, which led to a crisis in the fall of 1956.
The protests of the population in Poland led to the rejection of forced collectivization and some democratization of the political system. In Hungary, a reformist wing arose within the Communist Party. On October 23, 1956, demonstrations began in support of reformist forces. Their leader I. Nagy headed the government. Rallies took place throughout the country, and reprisals against communists began. On November 4, Soviet troops began to restore order in Budapest. 2,700 Hungarians and 663 Soviet soldiers died in street fighting. After a "purge" carried out by Soviet intelligence services, power was transferred to I. Kadaru. In the 60-70s. XX century Kadar pursued a policy aimed at improving the standard of living of the population while preventing political change.
In the mid-60s. The situation in Czechoslovakia worsened. Economic difficulties coincided with calls from the intelligentsia to improve socialism and give it a “human face.” The party approved in 1968 a program of economic reforms and democratization of society. He led the country A.Duchek., proponent of change. The leadership of the CPSU and the Communist Party of Eastern European countries reacted sharply negatively to these changes.
Five members of the leadership of the Communist Party of Human Rights secretly sent a letter to Moscow with a request to intervene in the course of events and prevent the “threat of counter-revolution.” On the night of August 21, 1968, troops from Bulgaria, Hungary, the GDR, Poland and the USSR entered Czechoslovakia. Relying on the presence of Soviet troops, opponents of the reforms went on the offensive.
At the turn of the 70-80s. xx century crisis phenomena emerged in Poland, which had developed quite successfully in the previous period. The deteriorating situation of the population caused strikes. In their course, a trade union committee “Solidarity”, independent from the authorities, emerged, headed by L. Valensa. In 1981, Polish President General V. Jaruzelski introduced martial law, the leaders of Solidarity were subjected to house arrest. However, Solidarity structures began to operate underground.
Yugoslavia's special path.
In Yugoslavia, the communists who led the anti-fascist struggle in 1945 took power. Their Croatian leader became the president of the country And Broz Tito. Tito's desire for independence led in 1948 to a rupture in relations between Yugoslavia and the USSR. Tens of thousands of Moscow supporters were repressed. Stalin launched anti-Yugoslav propaganda, but did not intervene militarily.
Soviet-Yugoslav relations were normalized after Stalin's death, but Yugoslavia continued to follow its own path. At enterprises, management functions were carried out by labor collectives through elected workers' councils. Planning from the Center was transferred to the localities. The focus on market relations has led to an increase in the production of consumer goods. In agriculture, almost half of the farms were individual peasants.
The situation in Yugoslavia was complicated by its multinational composition and the uneven development of the republics that were part of it. General leadership was provided by the League of Communists of Yugoslavia (UCY). Tito has been the chairman of the UCJ since 1952. He also served as president (for life) and chairman of the Federation Council.
Changes in Eastern Europe At the EndxxV.
The policy of perestroika in the USSR caused similar processes in the countries of Eastern Europe. At the same time, the Soviet leadership by the end of the 80s of the twentieth century. abandoned the policy of preserving the existing regimes in these countries; on the contrary, it called on them to “democratize”. Most of the ruling parties there have had new leadership. But the attempts of this leadership to carry out reforms similar to the perestroika ones, as in the Soviet Union, were not crowned with success. The economic situation has worsened. The flight of the population to the West became widespread. Opposition movements to the authorities were formed. There were demonstrations and strikes everywhere. As a result of the demonstrations of October - November 1989 in the GDR, the government resigned, and on November 8 the destruction of the Berlin Wall began. In 1990, the unification of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany took place.
In most countries, communists were removed from power by popular demonstrations. The ruling parties dissolved themselves or transformed into social democratic ones. Soon elections were held, in which the former oppositionists won. These events were called "velvet revolutions". Only in Romania are opponents of the head of state N. Ceausescu organized an uprising in December 1989, during which many people died. Ceausescu and his wife were killed. In 1991, the regime changed in Albania.
Dramatic events took place in Yugoslavia, where parties opposed to the communists won elections in all republics except Serbia and Montenegro. Slovenia and Croatia declared independence in 1991. War between Serbs and Croats immediately broke out in Croatia, as the Serbs feared persecution that had taken place during World War II at the hands of Croatian Ustasha fascists. Later, Macedonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence. After this, Serbia and Montenegro formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, conflict began between Serbs, Croats and Muslims. It lasted until 1997.
The collapse of Czechoslovakia took place differently. After a referendum, it peacefully split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993.
After political changes, transformations began in all Eastern European countries in the economy and other spheres of social life. Everywhere they abandoned the planned economy and the command-administrative management system, and the restoration of market relations began. Privatization was carried out, and foreign capital gained a strong position in the economy. The first transformations were called "shock therapy" since they were associated with a production crisis, mass unemployment, inflation, etc. Particularly radical changes in this regard took place in Poland. Social stratification has increased everywhere, crime and corruption have increased. The situation was particularly difficult in Albania, where in 1997 there was a popular uprising against the government.
However, by the end of the 90s. XX century The situation in most countries has stabilized. Inflation was overcome, then economic growth began. The greatest successes have been achieved in the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland. Foreign investment played a big role in this. Traditional mutually beneficial ties with Russia and other post-Soviet states were gradually restored. In foreign policy, all Eastern European countries are oriented towards the West; they have set a course for joining NATO and the EU. FOR
The internal political situation in these countries is characterized by a change in power between right and left parties. However, their policies both within the country and in the international arena largely coincide.
