LECTURE IV - OFFICIAL VOCABULARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE Book and formal business vocabulary Book words are elevated words used in scientific style, books or types of oral communication such as public speech, formal negotiations, etc. They have a specific denotative meaning and are characterized by the absence of any connotations, for example, approximate, commence, comprise, experimental, internal, external, indicate, initial, etc. This layer of vocabulary is especially rich in adjectives. Book words are either formal synonyms of commonly used, neutral words, or express concepts that can only be conveyed with the help of descriptive, commonly used phrases, for example, to externalize - to express inner feelings. Book words are mainly borrowed words of Latin or Greek origin. This group also includes words of official bureaucratic language, for example, to assist, endeavor, sufficient, etc. In addition, it includes archaic allied words that have fallen out of use, for example, hereby, herein, thereafter, herewith, as well as such conjunctions, adverbs and combinations as moreover, furthermore, however, in consequence of, etc. Book and official business vocabulary is used not only in official letters and professional communications, but sometimes in everyday speech. The use of formal business language in informal situations looks inappropriate and produces a comic effect. Terms The English vocabulary contains words and expressions that are used in a particular branch of industry or science. Such words are called terms. They are not used in other areas and are not understood by other people. Each area of ​​life has specialized vocabulary, i.e. words serving a specific professional or scientific field. There are medical, psychological, musical, linguistic, industrial, transport and other terms. The terms refer to various scientific and technical objects, phenomena, and processes. According to the point of view of N.B. Gvishiani, scientific communication is based on quickly decipherable units that require unity of form and content, which allows communicators to avoid ambiguity and misunderstanding1. This is achieved using terms. A term is a word or phrase with a stable meaning, denoting an object or process that relates to a certain 1 See: Gvishiani N.B. Terminology in English Language Teaching. M., 1993. 21 sphere of science or production and having special linguistic characteristics. A term, as a rule, must be monosemantic, have only a denotative meaning, have a simple semantic structure, have no elements of connotative meaning (for example, emotional connotation), and have no synonyms. However, there are polysemantic terms in English, but it should be noted that only one LSV of a polysemantic term can be realized in a certain situation, context or combination with other stylistically neutral lexical units. Examples of economic terms are the following: challenged acquisition (takeover of an enterprise protested by antitrust authorities), income, profit, bond, equity, securities, venture capital, capital gain, etc. It should be noted that terms are formed using existing word-formation means. In English, the following structural types of terms are distinguished: - attributive-nominal compound words, for example, connecting rod, cylinder head, sound wave, steam-boiler, velocity joint, etc.; - derived words formed by affixation, for example, toughness, drainage, breakage, abandonment, mistrial, etc.; - verbs formed by conversion, for example, to trap, to condition, etc.; - phraseological combinations, for example, room and pillar conveyer system, two-strike cycle engine, etc. Many terms in English are formed using Latin and Greek roots, for example, telegraphy, phonetics, microfilm, telemechanics. Such terms are easily understood by people speaking different languages, which is of particular importance in the field of science and technology. To form scientific terms, elements of Latin and Greek origin are often used, for example, tele-, micro-, mega-, hyper-, mono-, iso-, etc. The terms are often used in newspaper, journalistic and official styles. They can also be used in fiction. In this case, the terms perform specific stylistic functions: they serve as indirect means of creating a real situation, atmosphere (hospital, ward, laboratory, train station, airport, etc.). The “fate” of a term can be different. It may be replaced by another term or lose its terminological characteristics and become a commonly used word, for example, truck, television tube. Archaisms Within this lexical layer I.R. Halperin distinguishes between obsolete words (those that are rarely used, e.g. , thee, thine, thy, pallet, etc.), obsolete words (which have completely fallen out of use, e.g., methinks, nay, etc.) and archaisms themselves (words that are not “recognized” by modern English, e.g. , troth – faith)1. Archaisms have partially or completely fallen out of use in modern language. Some authors use them in historical stories and poetry to create a realistic setting for those times. Examples of archaisms are the following: thou, thy, aye, morn, eve, moon, foe, woe, steed, behold etc. Such archaic words as aforesaid, herewith, hereby, etc. often used in business style documents. There are also archaisms that have no referents in today's life, for example, yeoman, hauberk, goblet, mace, phaeton, prairie schooner. These are examples of historicisms. Words of this type never disappear from the language, although they denote objects and phenomena of the past. Historicisms do not have synonyms, while archaisms do. Sometimes an archaic word can become used again. For example, the former archaic word kin is currently used in American English. Archaisms can be used for a specific communicative or stylistic purpose, for example, to express solemnity, a touch of sublimity, create a comic effect, etc. Barbarianisms Barbarianisms are foreign words that exist in a language in a foreign form, i.e. while maintaining foreign pronunciation and spelling. Such words have synonyms in the layer of common vocabulary. Barbarisms are not prone to developing new meanings; they are monosemantic lexical units. Let's look at some examples of barbarisms: comme il faut, tete-a-tete, en route, coup d'etat, carte blanche, a la carte, haute couture, blitzkrieg (or blitz), idée fixe, alter ego, perestroika, etc. Yu.M. Skrebnev notes that French and Italian barbarisms relate to such areas as music, theater, and art. Some barbarisms in English perform a terminological function; they name objects and concepts for which there are no names in English, so they receive names that exist in the language of those peoples whose reality they reflect, for example, dacha, soviet, kolkhoz, perestroika, chalet, etc. Some former barbarisms have entered the layer of common vocabulary, for example, methodical, penetrate, function, etc. It should be noted that barbarisms are registered in dictionaries and are used mainly in fiction or journalistic style. They often play the role of stylistic devices, conveying a local atmosphere or emphasizing the fact that the action takes place in another country. 1 See: Galperin I.R. Stylistics. – M., 1977. 23 Poetisms Poetisms demonstrate maximum aesthetic value and are used mainly in poetry and fiction. During previous centuries there had been a tendency in English poetry to use words and expressions different from those used in everyday conversation or prose. The semantic structures of this group of words are endowed with sublime connotations, which immediately helps to distinguish them from other lexical units. Poetry began to be recognized as such in the era of classicism and romanticism. There are the following subgroups of poetisms: a) poetisms proper, for example, bard, perchance, eve, lone, amidst, o’er, ne’er, mead, gladsome, vale, etc.; b) obsolete words and archaisms, for example, wrought, thee, naught, ere, etc. c) dialectisms, for example, oft, rest (stop), nay, yea, etc.; d) rare words of French and Latin origin, for example, robe, garment, apparel, ‘reverie, etc. Poeticisms perform a certain decorative function. They are also sometimes found in prose, religious texts, or newspaper texts. I.R. Halperin notes that due to frequent repetition, poeticisms lose their originality. Questions for the seminar lesson: 1. Book and official business vocabulary. 2. Terms. 3. Archaisms. 4. Barbarisms. 5. Poetry. Exercises: 1. Write out examples of book and official business vocabulary from this story. By what parameters do you determine whether this vocabulary belongs to the above layers? Mistaken Identity Everyone in the room listened open-mouthed as a man, celebrating two years previously of an armed robbery, attempted to convince a court of appeal that he had been wrongfully imprisoned. His defense rested on the notion that reports from eyewitnesses as to the identity of the robber could not be relied upon as evidence of his guilt. Even though the man was arrested outside the bank, in possession of stolen money, and with two guns and a knife secreted about his person – and even though his accomplice, who was arrested in the 24 getaway car, had identified him as the man who had gone into the bank to carry out the robbery, the man still felt that he was in with a chance for freedom. His argument was “How could the people in the bank have identified me? I had a mask on when I did the job.” The appeal court remained unconvinced. (From The Best Book of Bizarre But True Stories by Mike Flynn) 2. Write out terms, terminological phrases from the given passages and indicate which branches of science and technology they relate to. A) Two officers from the Lothian and Borders traffic police in Scotland were out playing with their new radar gun on the Berwickshire Moors, catching speeding motorists and having a jolly time handing out tickets when the gun suddenly jammed up, giving a reading of 300 mph . For a moment the duo were terribly confused, wondering who on earth could be driving at that speed. Suddenly, everything became clear when a very low-flying Royal Air Force Harrier jet skimmed the top of their police car. The officers complained to the local RAF station, saying that their new toy had been ruined by the pilot’s exploits but were surprised to find themselves being reprimanded for using the radar gun in such a reckless fashion. At the moment their speed gun had locked on to the Harrier, the plane’s target seeker had locked on to what it interpreted as an enemy radar signal and triggered an automatic air-to-surface missile strike. Fortunately or the officers, the Harrier’s weapons systems had not been armed. (From The Best Book of Bizarre But True Stories by Mike Flynn) B) How do you expand an existing two-lane bridge into a three-lane bridge? To widen the Interstate 84 crossing over the Hudson River from 30 to 39 feet, the New York State Department of Transportation used structural lightweight concrete. Because the concrete used in the new deck weighed 35 pounds per cubic foot less than the concrete that was removed from the old deck, less than 20 percent of the steel support framing needed strengthening. And this is not unusual. Replacing an old bridge deck made of normal weight concrete will often allow the deck to be widened with minimal modifications to the substructure. (From Concrete Construction, 1985) B) The concept of “semantic field”, like the concept of “semantic frame”, opened up new domains of semantic research, first in Germany in the 1930s and then in the United States in the 1970s. Both concepts brought about “revolutions” in semantics, and provided semanticists with new tools for the study of semantic change and semantic structure. Although there have been several historical accounts of the development of field semantics, there exists no detailed study linking and comparing the development of field and frame semantics. (From Journal of Pragmatics, 2000) 3. Write out archaisms and barbarisms from these passages; translate passages and sentences. Are all foreign words from these 25 passages barbarisms? Do they contain examples of international words? A) A man in Norfolk, Virginia, cut off his own hand and would not let a doctor attempt to reattach it. Claiming that the hand had become possessed by the Devil and, quoting the biblical verse “If thy right hand offends thee, cut it off and cast it from thee,” he got busy with a saw. When the doctor tried to reattach the hand, the man claimed that the number 666 – commonly believed by certain Christians, horror writers and the insane to be the mark of the antichrist – had appeared on the hand and refused to allow the doctor to perform the operation. (From The Best Book of Bizarre But True Stories by Mike Flynn) B) “Woe to you, Oh Earth and Sea, for the Devil sends the beast with wrath, because he knows the time is short… Let him who hath understanding reckon the number of the beast for it is a human number, its number is Six hundred and sixty six.” (Revelations Ch. XIII V. 18) C) “And God shall wipe away all tears from their eyes; and there shall be no more Death. Neither sorrow, nor crying. Neither shall there be anymore Brain; for the former things are passed away.” (Revelations Ch. XXI V. 4) D) “O God of Earth and Altar Bow down and hear our cry, Our earthly rulers falter, Our people drift and die, The walls of gold entomb us, The swords of scorn divide, Take not thy thunder from us, But take way our pride.” (G.K. Chesterton: English Hymnal) E) “The time will come for him to lay claim his crown, And then the foe yes they'll be cut down...” (Iron Maiden: To Tame a Land) E) “The Dolce Vita is worth all the hassles, except one: health care.” “If you go to Che's shrine in Santa Clara southeast of Havana, where he is buried beneath a gigantic Soviet-style statue that commemorates both his decisive military victory over Fulgencio Batista's army in 1958 (after which the dictator fled the country) and Che's departure for Bolivia in 1965 to 26 foment another (this time unsuccessful) revolution, you will see heroically outlined against the sky.” “Cubans who apparently revere “El commandante” muse out a lot about his longevity, wondering whether he will last another decade or more, which keeps them in a state of suspense, if not suspended animation.” “Like a dream, salsa music wafted in from a dance hall across the street. ” “It glows with Spanish-style grandeur and art-deco elegance; and its literary history makes it memorable.” (From Newsweek, 2003) Misaki and Daisuke dressed up in their formal kimonos to celebrate and bought the symbolic good luck candy called chitose-ame. Huge lanterns in the shape of samurai are paraded through the streets. Origami is the Japanese traditional art of making various forms, such as animals or flowers, by folding a piece of paper. People are familiar with Origami from their childhood in Japan. Orizuru (a paper crane) is the most popular subject in Origami, and it is very hard to find a Japanese who cannot make one. (From Hello Japan, 2003) Sitting next to me was a Cuban in his 60s from Miami. As we descended toward Havana Airport, he kept looking out of the porthole at the sparse pinpoints of light below. “Poquito! Poquito!” he said, grimacing sadly and holding up his thumb and index finger like a pair of tweeters. Havana’s pale flickering, a poor match for Miami’s electric blaze, Seemed to evoke contradictory feelings in him of anguish and schadenfreude. (From Newsweek, 2003) 4. Do you consider these words to be barbarism? Explain your point of view. sari, rupee, samosa, dacha, samovar, dйcolletage, dйcolletе, coup d"etat 27 LECTURE V – COMMON VOCABULARY AND NEOLOGISMS Basic vocabulary Words belonging to the layer of common vocabulary (basic vocabulary) are stylistically neutral units. They are opposed to the layer of formal and informal vocabulary, since they can be used in any situation - both formal and informal, in oral and written communication, words of this kind are used by people of any profession, level of education, age, place of residence. Common words denote objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality, for example. , house, bread, summer, child, mother, difficult, easy, to go, to stand, etc. It should be noted that the core of this layer of the English language consists mainly of words of common Germanic origin. Basic vocabulary, in turn, constitutes the core of the entire vocabulary. composition This is the most stable layer of vocabulary, which changes quite slowly. The boundaries between the layer of commonly used vocabulary and other layers are quite flexible. The layer of commonly used vocabulary includes the following lexical-semantic groups: I. Names of objects and natural phenomena: sun, moon, water, fire, earth, wood, field etc.; II. Names of a person, relatives, parts of the body: man, woman, mother, father, brother, hand, nose, mouth, finger etc. ; III. Names of dwellings, household items, pets: house, roof, bed, bread, horse, cat etc.; IV. Names of tools: axe, hammer, nail, saw etc.; V. Names of the main spectral colors, the main characteristics of objects and phenomena: black, white, red, bad, old, young, new, little, high etc.; VI. Names of basic life processes: go, come, ride, eat, drink, live, work, die etc.; VII. Structural language units: in, on, to, and, but etc. Words of the commonly used layer of vocabulary are characterized by stylistic neutrality and lack of connotations. The meanings of these words are characterized by breadth and generality; they directly denote concepts without conveying additional information. Units of the basic layer of vocabulary and stylistically marked words do not exist independently; they are closely related to each other. Neologisms 28 Neologisms are newly formed words or words that have acquired new meanings due to social, economic, political or cultural changes in human society. As noted above, neologisms can belong to both the layer of formal and informal vocabulary. New words appear constantly in English and other languages; Currently there is a so-called neological boom. In some discourses, the emergence of new words was caused by progress in various branches of science and technology. New words are mainly used by university teachers, newspaper reporters, youth, people actively involved in social communication and those associated with the media. Neologisms are often found in newspaper vocabulary, because newspapers are the fastest to respond to changes in social life, science and technology. According to Yu.M. Skrebneva, “in most cases, newly formed words are difficult to accept by the linguistic community due to its conservative attitude towards any innovation.” There are three main ways of forming neologisms in a language. A word can change its meaning to name a new object or phenomenon; such lexical units are called semantic neologisms. A new lexical unit may appear in a language to denote an object or phenomenon for which a name already exists in the language. This process is called transnomination. And finally, a completely new word may appear in the language to designate a new object or phenomenon. Such words are called neologisms themselves. The simpler the semantic structure of a neologism, the easier it will be accepted by society. IN AND. Zabotkina notes that the reasons for creating new words are mainly pragmatic. The main pragmatic motive underlying the creation of new words is the triad: necessity (the need of the language to name something that has not yet been named) - emphasis (the desire for greater expressiveness) - beauty (the need for beauty) 2. Let's consider some examples: necessity (new referents receive names , e.g. cyberphobia, cyberphilia); emphasis (new, more expressive names are given to already named objects, for example, laid-back, buttoned-down, burned-out, etc.); beauty (this group includes borrowings-barbarisms from other languages, for example, dolce vita). How does the process of a new word entering a language occur? IN AND. Zabotkina notes that to name it, it is first necessary to identify the referent, determine its place in the speaker’s cognitive system and categorize it. Next comes the process of subcategorization (comparison with other members of a given category), and only after that the search for a new name begins. 1 Skrebnev Y.M. Fundamentals of English Stylistics. – M., 2003. P. 59. 2 See: Zabotkina V.I. Cognitive-pragmatic approach to neology//Cognitive-pragmatic aspects of linguistic research: Collection of articles. scientific tr. / Kalinig. univ. – Kaliningrad, 1999. P. 3-9. 29 Then the word goes through the process of conventionalization (assumption by society) and lexicolization (assumption by the language system); it absorbs additional pragmatic features of the context of its repeated use1. In the English language there are many lexical and semantic groups of neologisms related to various spheres of human life. Let's consider some of them: - the sphere of computer and information technologies (multi-user, to computerize, to blitz out, to telework, to telecommute, telebanking, videobank, etc.); - linguistic sphere (machine translation, artspeak, sportspeak, etc.); - the sphere of politics and social life (youthquake, pussy-footer, Europarliament, belonger, survivor, welfare mother, dial-a-meal, multiculturalism, etc.); - criminal sphere (neighbor watch, steaming, wolf-pack, etc.); - environmental protection (acid fog, energy belt, etc.). There are also lexical-semantic groups of neologisms denoting ordinary, everyday things, for example: - food (longlife milk, beefburger, fishburger, etc.); - clothes (slimster, sweatnik, bloomers, etc. ); - shoes (thongs, backsters, etc.). New lexical units denoting previously unknown objects and concepts also appeared in the fields of finance, music, art, crime, etc. Neologisms can be classified according to the way they enter the language. The following types of neologisms are distinguished: - phonological (rah-rah); - borrowings (perestroika, dolce vita, etc.); - semantic neologisms (umbrella meaning “political cover”); - morphological neologisms (free-fall, rubber-neck, x-rated, tycoonography, to gallery-hop, to job-hop, hard-to-get, middle-of-the-road, etc.); - phraseological (sleeping policeman, to nose out, electronic virus, a whiz-kid). According to the point of view of T.A. Pimakhina, most neologisms appear in the American English language. In American English, approximately 45% of neologisms relate to scientific and technical terminology2. It should be noted that when translating neologisms related to the political, social and ethnographic spheres, the translator 1 See: Ibid. 2 See: Pimakhina T.A. Linguistic and stylistic characteristics of neologisms in modern English // Functional aspect of language units. Samara: Samara University Publishing House, 1992. pp. 105 – 112. 30

English vocabulary is divided into many types and categories, depending on certain factors. Today's topic will be devoted to their study. The bulk of the English dictionary is made up of the so-called Neutral lexis (neutral vocabulary), which does not belong to any type and has no classifications; it seems to penetrate almost all categories of vocabulary. Its main characteristics are neutrality, versatility and simplicity.

Neutral lexis: neutral vocabulary

In essence, this is a clear, inter-style vocabulary, which consists of such parts of speech as:
nouns

• day - day
• table - table
• work - work
• sun - sun
• way - path

adjectives

• beautiful - beautiful
• sunny - sunny
• sweet - sweet
• happy - happy
• clear - clear
• sad - sad

verbs

• to be - to be
• to eat - there is
• to find - to find
• to stay - stand, stay
• to work - to work
• to smile - smile

adverbs

• mildly - gently, softly
• quickly - quickly
• strongly - strongly
• skillfully - skillfully

pronouns (pronouns)

• he - he
• my - mine, mine
• her (s) - her
• us - to us
• who - who
• which - which
• this - this, this
• those - those

numerals

• four - four
• seventeen - seventeen
• sixty - sixty
• the third - third

functional linking words(conjunctions, prepositions, particles) - link words (conjunctions, prepositions, particles)

• a - indefinite article
• in- in
• on - on, by
• out - outside, from
• but - but
• if - if

Common: standard vocabulary

Common (standard) vocabulary is another class of vocabulary that includes neutral, general formal and general informal vocabulary.

Standard lexis= neutral lexis+ common literary lexis+ common colloquial lexis

It is important to note that this “standard English” is the basic vocabulary, the lexicological norm, valid in any English-speaking country. In an ideal case, this is explained something like this: an Englishman, an American, an Irishman, a Scotsman and an Australian meet and start a conversation (in that same standard English) and... everyone understands each other! Wonderful!

However, in reality, this may not always be the case, since people in different countries communicate seemingly in English, but still in different ways, since there is no regulatory body that would “standardize” the English language. A lot depends on the accent, pronunciation, etc.
Also, vocabulary is divided according to stylistic characteristics into 3 registers:

• colloquial (informal)
• bookish (literary)
• high (official)

Formal and informal vocabulary

There is another main classification of vocabulary into two large groups - formal (book vocabulary) and informal (colloquial) vocabulary.

Formal vocabulary is vocabulary used in various types of documentation, in printed publications, television programs, documentaries, in schools and universities, and in government institutions. It is also a generally accepted category of words used in communication with certain social categories with which we have neither friendly nor family relations (bosses, teachers, strangers, clerks).

Informal vocabulary is those words that we use in communication with family and friends, which we hear in feature films and plays, and can also be found in a comic book or in a non-scientific magazine; it is replete with abbreviations and connecting words.

These two vocabulary groups are also divided into specific smaller subgroups, depending on the scope of use of a particular vocabulary.

Classification of vocabulary by area of ​​use, with examples and Russian translation.

Watch the video.

Literary vocabulary (book vocabulary) of the English language is divided into common and special. Commonly used book vocabulary is tied to literature (written speech, oratory). Inappropriate in speech and oral use: to commence, to implement, to eliminate.

Special book vocabulary includes poetisms, historicisms, archaisms, terms, foreign words, barbarisms, neologisms.

Poeticisms- a layer of special literary and book vocabulary that has a functional-stylistic component in its semantic structure, indicating the limited use of the word in certain poetic contexts. This component is stable and is marked in dictionaries by the mark “poet”: foe, woe, billow, steed, charger, etc. Poetisms include less commonly used words (for example, borrowed at different periods from French, Latin and other languages: the words robe, garment , apparel, circumambient and others). A structural feature of English poeticisms is a group of words that are structural (morphological and phonetic) variants of neutral units: list = listen; yesterday = yesterday; ye = you; morning ~ morning; e"er = ever.

Archaisms- words driven out of use by synonyms. The denotation did not disappear, but received a different name: main-ocean.

Historicisms- words denoting disappeared realities and concepts. The denotation disappeared, but the name remained: frontier - the border of the colonists’ advance to the west, falconet - light cannon.

Stylistic functions of obsolete words : 1. Recreation of the color of the era, stylization: Nay – no. Methinks – I think. 2.Creating a solemn tone: I saw thee weep. Be hold her. 3. Terms of jurisprudence: Hereby I certify – Hereby I promise. To this – Hereto. At the same time - Herewith. From this

– Thereof. Hereinafter named – Hereinafter named

Terms– the name of concepts specific to any field of knowledge or field of activity. They can be found both in oral and written genres: assets, diode, loan. The main requirement is unambiguity.

Foreign words– words and phrases borrowed from other languages ​​that have not undergone grammatical or phonetic assimilation (French: bonjour, tout le monde, peu de chose). Used to create local color (Come in, carino, all the light is gone). Sometimes these words are used to indicate the nationality of a character (: “Mme Lamote found him and said...trés amical, trés gentel” (G. Galsworthy).

Barbarisms – foreign words or expressions that have not been fully mastered by the language and are perceived as foreign, as a violation of generally accepted language norms. In fiction they are used to ridicule a character (“...what a distinguee girl she was...” (Thackeray); “...Bosinney was chic...” (Galsworthy).).

Neologisms- new words that arise in the memory of the generation that uses them. Subsequently, it loses its novelty and may become obsolete and fall out of use. They are formed according to existing models in the language: friendly-environmentally friendly.

Classification of neologisms:

1. neologisms themselves, lexical (novelty of form + new meaning) computer-buyer

1. Semantic (old form, new content) mafia - takes on the meaning of any closed society; sophisticated - formerly “wise with experience”, let’s modernize. - “sophisticated computer” –

progressive.

1. Transnomination - the novelty of the form is combined with the meaning already indicated in the language by another form: big C-cancer, sudser(>suds-soap foam) -soap opera.

Such words usually move into common vernacular.

/ Galperin A.I. "Essays on the stylistics of the English language"

The gap between living spoken speech and the written (literary-book) type of speech was most manifested, at all stages of development, in vocabulary. The general literary and book vocabulary of modern English is characterized by a significant number of words of Latin and French origin (book borrowings). Their semantic boundaries are much more clearly delineated than the corresponding synonyms of live spoken language, and, therefore, they provide a more precise expression of thought.

The contrast between general literary and book vocabulary and colloquial vocabulary is often used to achieve the desired stylistic effect. So in the story

55

O. Henry "By Courier "The contrast between general literary and book vocabulary and colloquial vocabulary (significantly flavored with non-literary forms of speech and enhanced by figurative expressions) acquires a special stylistic function - to emphasize the difference in the social status of the characters in the story:

"Tell her I am on my way to the station, to leave for San Francisco, where I shall join that Alaska moose-hunting expedition. Tell her that, since she has commanded me neither to speak nor to write to her I take this means of making one last appeal to her sense of justice, for the sake of what has been. Tell her that to condemn and discard one who has not deserved such treatment, without giving him her reason or a chance to explain is contrary to her nature as I believe it to be."

"He told me to tell yer he"s got his collars and cuffs in dat grip for a scoot clean out to "Frisco. Den he"s goin" to shoot snowbirds in de Klondike. He says yer told him not to send "round no more pink notes nor come hangin" over de garden gate, and he takes dis mean (sending the boy to speak for him- AND . G .)of putting yer wise. He says yer referred him like a has-been, and never give him no chance to kick at de decision. He says yer swiped him, and never said why."

A similar example can be given from the play by B. Shaw " Fanny's First Play ", where lively colloquial speech is contrasted with strict, precise, literary and bookish speech. Here the contrast is achieved only by lexical means:

Dora: Oh I've let it out .Have I! (Contemplating Juggins approvingly as he places a chair for her between the table and the sideboard) But hes the right sort: I can see that. (Buttonholing him). You won't let on downstairs, old man, will you?

Juggins:The Family can rely on my absolute discretion.

Dora uses words from the colloquial layer of vocabulary. In Jugins's speech, the choice of words is characterized by a neutral and literary-bookish connotation.

Here is an example in which a comparison of colloquial words and literary-book words in combination with other features of the two types of speech shows how written speech serves to clarify the expressed thought:

A grin twitched George's pallid lips.

"Make me a codicil. You"ll find paper in the dressing-table drawer". . .

56

The words came with a hoarse delight. "My three screws to young Val Dartie, because he"s the only Forsyte that knows a horse from a donkey." A throaty chuckle sounded ghastly in the ears of Soames.

"What have you said?"

Soames read: "I hereby leave my three racehorses to my kinsman Valerius Dartie, of Wansdon, Sussex, because he has special knowledge of horses."

(J. Galsworthy. The White Monkey )

Some literary and bookish words of modern English are clearly distinguished by their specific bookish and literary character. These are, For example , concord, harmony, dispute, auxiliary, opponent, volition, antagonism, calamity, partaking(cf. to take part), exemption, susceptibility, morosity, in accordance with, assiduity, alacrity, succour and etc .

Book and literary vocabulary also includes a significant number of phraseological combinations. So, For example , The following phraseological units are clearly bookish: to pass the Rubicon; with regard, by virtue of, to lose an opportunity, to speak at great length, to lend assistance, to draw a lesson, responsibility rests and etc .

Many of the words and phraseological units related to literary and book vocabulary can also be used in live, direct communication. This does not make them cease to be literary and bookish words. This is the penetration of literary and book vocabulary into the sphere of living spoken language. If such penetration becomes systematic, then literary and book vocabulary is gradually “neutralized.”

Excessive use of literary and book vocabulary in lively colloquial speech is felt as dissonance and is used in special stylistic tasks. (See Micawber's speech given on page 55)

A wide vocabulary is something every English learner should strive for, because the more words you know, the more you can say. However, in addition to learning new words, you also need to learn how to correctly combine them with each other, compose sentences from them and use them in your speech. And textbooks on English vocabulary will teach you all this wisdom. We will tell you about the 7 most popular textbooks for improving your vocabulary and explain how to work with them.

We have already compiled a detailed review for our readers. At the same time, we wrote that these comprehensive manuals help develop all English language skills and also expand your vocabulary. Below we will write several reasons to take a book to increase your vocabulary in addition to the universal textbook. In this review, we will introduce you to the following 7 vocabulary guides:

• English Vocabulary in Use
• Oxford Word Skills
• Test Your Vocabulary
• Keywords for Fluency
• 4000 Essential English Words
• Vocabulary in Practice
• Boost Your Vocabulary

Why do we need additional textbooks on English vocabulary?

Special aids to expand your vocabulary will allow you to:

1. Learn words effectively

Each of the presented textbooks on English vocabulary is focused on learning new words in context. You learn new vocabulary and immediately use it in practical exercises, see how it “works” in natural speech. This is the most productive and fastest way to expand your vocabulary.

2. It’s easier to express your thoughts

Of course, knowledge of grammar and conversational practice are mandatory “pillars”, without which you cannot speak English confidently. However, other things being equal, a good vocabulary will allow you to speak more beautifully and clearly. Also, if you are about to take an exam or emigrate, having a large vocabulary will make your life much easier. Of course, the main textbook provides a good supply of vocabulary for each level of knowledge, but if you want to make your speech more natural and expressive, you will need manuals for replenishing your vocabulary.

3. It is better to perceive speech by ear

Obviously, the more English words you know, the more you can understand. Therefore, we advise those who complain that they have difficulty listening to English to pay attention to such manuals. Quite often, the reason for such misunderstanding is that a person has a limited vocabulary, so our brain plays a cruel joke on us - we simply do not hear all unfamiliar words.

4. Activate vocabulary

A huge advantage of such manuals is that they focus not so much on teaching new words, but on practicing the use of various words in the English language. Surely you have heard people complain: “I already read English texts, but I speak very poorly.” The thing is that such students have extensive knowledge, that is, they recognize a word when they hear it or come across it in a text. At the same time, their active reserve is very small, that is, they cannot use in their own speech all the words that they seem to know. English vocabulary books help solve this problem: through practice and constant repetition, words move from passive to active vocabulary.

5. Reach the next level of English faster

At what level should I take this training aid? Each series of books includes textbooks for different levels of knowledge, so at any level you can choose good material for replenishing your vocabulary. If you are learning English with a teacher, you can ask him to take additional material from the textbook you like. If you study English on your own, try to regularly complete the tasks from the selected manual.

English Vocabulary in Use

Elementary	Average	Intermediate advanced	High

Publishing house

This textbook is published in the “... in Use” series, like the famous textbook by Raymond Murphy English Grammar in Use, which we wrote about in the “” review. Therefore, the format of these books is similar: each lesson unit takes up 1 spread. Theory is given on the left, practical exercises are given on the right.

There are two ways to work with this tutorial. If your vocabulary is quite limited, it is best to go from the first lesson to the last and not skip anything. If you lack knowledge on certain topics, you can select and study them.

Exercises to expand your vocabulary in English Vocabulary in Use include tasks on choosing a word, filling in missing words in the text, crossword puzzles, writing short texts, matching a word to a picture, dividing words into groups according to any criteria, selecting definitions for idioms and phrasal verbs, selection of synonyms, etc.

Features of the textbook

If you learn English on your own, this manual will be convenient to use. At the end of the textbook there are answers to all exercises, that is, you can test yourself.

An undoubted advantage of the manual is the presence at the end of the book of a list of all words found in units. The words are written in alphabetical order, a transcription is given for each of them, you can immediately find out how the word is read correctly. In addition, each word has the page number on which it appears, so if you want to know how to use it correctly, just turn to the page you want.

Oxford Word Skills

Elementary	Average	High

Publishing house: Oxford University Press (UK).

The structure of the textbook and the principle of working with it

In this series of British vocabulary books, suitable material should be selected according to the following principle:

• Basic manual - for Elementary and Pre-Intermediate levels.
• Intermediate manual - for Intermediate and Upper-Intermediate levels.
• Advanced manual - for Advanced and Proficiency levels.

Each book in this series contains 80 units. The lesson ranges from one to three pages depending on the topic. The blocks of theoretical material are immediately accompanied by practical exercises to consolidate knowledge. All units are divided by topic into group modules of 5 or 10 lessons. After each module in the textbook, you will be asked to take a test that will check how well you have mastered the material of all the lessons you have completed.

When working through this tutorial, you can also go in order or choose exactly those topics in which you have gaps. However, if you are learning English on your own, the first option is preferable: this way you will not miss anything important.

Tasks for replenishing vocabulary are varied: insert missing letters, find synonyms, answer questions, choose a word, insert a missing word into a phrase, etc. In addition to written exercises for vocabulary training, Oxford Word Skills includes tasks for developing speaking and listening.

Features of the textbook

The main feature of this textbook is the presence of a voiced dictionary, that is, you can listen to how all the words you study sound.

At the end of the manual there are answers to all exercises, as well as tests following each module, so this textbook can also be recommended for self-study.

There is also a list of words in alphabetical order at the end of the manual. For each of them, a transcription is given and the page number on which you will find exercises with this word is indicated.

Additional online exercises for this tutorial series can be found at elt.oup.com. Click on the link “Basic”, “Intermediate” or “Advanced”, and the exercises for the corresponding manual will be available to you.

Test Your Vocabulary

Elementary	Below the average	Average	Above average	High

Publishing house: Pearson (UK).

The structure of the textbook and the principle of working with it

Each of the five books in the Test Your Vocabulary series consists of 60 units, which occupy 1-2 pages depending on the topic. These guides for learning English vocabulary will appeal to those who like to take various tests. However, the books also contain theoretical material; it is presented briefly, in the form of a short historical or grammatical note.

Despite the fact that this series is a book with vocabulary tests, the tasks presented are very diverse. You can solve different types of crosswords, label pictures, combine words into phrases, select phrases for comic book characters, etc.

The authors suggest working with the textbook as follows. To remember new words well, you need to return to them repeatedly, so make all notes in the book in pencil. After completing the exercise and self-test, remove all answers. After 1-2 months, return to the lesson and try it again. This way you will consolidate the vocabulary in your memory.

Features of the textbook

The main advantage of this series is interesting practical tests that help you quickly remember new words and the specifics of their use. At the end of each textbook you will find answers to tests and a list of words to study in alphabetical order.

Key Words for Fluency

Below the average	Average	Above average

Publishing house: Heinle (UK/Scotland/USA).

The structure of the textbook and the principle of working with it

Textbooks of the Pre-Intermediate and Intermediate levels in this series contain 22 voluminous lessons, which are divided into several parts. Each part is dedicated to 1 word. For this word you will be offered about 10-20 variants of word combinations (collocations), that is, you will see which words and how exactly the vocabulary in question can “work”. In the Upper-Intermediate level manual, words are not combined by topic, but the principle of presenting the material is the same.

You can learn and remember all these useful phrases during practical exercises. They are quite similar, but after completing them you will learn in which cases which expression should be used. In addition, many phrases contain prepositions, and students of English will confirm that it is not always easy to remember which preposition to use in a particular case. Therefore, having learned the expression completely, you will also remember well the preposition that is used in a particular phrase.

Features of the textbook

This series of textbooks is strikingly different from all other textbooks presented in our review in that you learn not new words, but new expressions. As the author of the series notes, knowing individual words is not enough for an English learner. To speak confidently, you need to know how words “cooperate” with each other, that is, in conjunction with what words they are used. Knowing such expressions will allow you to speak English faster and easier, while avoiding mistakes in the use of words.

The Pre-Intermediate level manual provides tests after studying each group of lessons; the other two textbooks do not have such testing tasks, but after a while you can return to the lesson and try to go through it again, so you will see what has stuck in your memory.

At the end of the textbooks there are answers to all tasks, as well as a list of words in alphabetical order and the pages on which they appear.

4000 Essential English Words

Level: 1	Level: 2	Level: 3
Level: 4	Level: 5	Level: 6

Publishing house: Compass Publishing (UK).

The structure of the textbook and the principle of working with it

All books in this series are suitable for people studying at the Intermediate level and above. 4000 words will just help you move to the next level, because students should have such a vocabulary at the Upper-Intermediate - Advanced level.

The 4000 Essential English Words series consists of 30 units, each of which is devoted to learning 20 new words and how to use them. Thus, by the end of all 6 textbooks, you will know 3600 words from the lessons + about 400 words from the appendices at the end of the textbook.

• Universal words. Words that are used in both formal and informal communication are offered for study. It doesn't matter what kind of English you're learning - general conversational, technical or business English - these words will definitely come in handy.
• Frequently used words. This vocabulary is widely used by native speakers in oral and written speech in various fields of activity. You will often see these words in articles, books, news and everyday conversation.
• According to the authors, the words proposed for study cover approximately 90% of the vocabulary used in colloquial speech and modern fiction, and 80% of the vocabulary used in scientific articles and newspapers.

The lesson presents 20 new words, each of them is given a definition in English, transcription, part of speech is indicated, an example sentence is given and a picture is drawn. After this, you will be asked to do several exercises, and then read the text, which contains all the new words, and answer questions about it.

Features of the textbook

If you like to read in English, we recommend choosing this series of textbooks on English vocabulary. The presence of texts with the words you are studying will allow you to memorize words not only from exercises, as in other books, but also in context. Fascinating articles are easy to read, and therefore the words from them will be easy to remember.

At the end of the textbooks there are appendices that also indicate words useful for learning, they are presented in the form of a visual dictionary. Following the appendices is a list of words in alphabetical order, indicating the pages on which they appear in the book.

There are no answers to the exercises in the manual, so we recommend either learning English with a teacher, or purchasing an additional book with answers.

And the most interesting thing for lovers of modern teaching methods: 3 books from this series are available as an application for Android. You can install the third, fourth or fifth part of the textbook as a program for your gadget.

Vocabulary in Practice

Level: 1	Level: 2	Level: 3
Level: 4	Level: 5	Level: 6

Publishing house: Cambridge University Press (UK).

The structure of the textbook and the principle of working with it

Each of the manuals in this series consists of 30-40 units (depending on the level). After 10 lessons you will be asked to repeat the material and at the same time test yourself using a test.

• going from the first lesson to the last is an option that will allow you to study all the topics as well as possible;
• skip lessons on topics for which you have a good vocabulary, and study only topics that are new to you. After completing the training, take verification tests and, if necessary, repeat misunderstood topics.

Practical exercises are varied: you will need to select synonyms, insert missing words, solve crosswords, label objects in pictures, combine phrases for dialogue, etc.

Features of the textbook

A special feature of this edition is its emphasis on grammar. It should be noted that the manual is structured in such a way that even without theoretical explanations everything will be clear to you. If you have any difficulty, you can search for clarification on the Internet. This is also not bad: when you find answers to your questions on your own, you remember the material well.

At the end of the textbook there are answers to all exercises, as well as verification tests. There you will also find lists of words with transcriptions, divided by units.

Boost Your Vocabulary

Level: 1	Level: 2	Level: 3	Level: 4

Publishing house: Pearson Longman (UK).

The structure of the textbook and the principle of working with it

The Boost Your Vocabulary series consists of 4 editions, which should be selected according to the following principle:

• the first book is for the Beginner-Elementary level;
• the second book is for the Elementary level;
• the third book is for the Pre-Intermediate level;
• the fourth book is for the Intermediate - Upper-Intermediate level.

The manuals include 12 unit lessons, each occupying 6 pages. After every four units you will be asked to take a screening test. The author suggests the following scheme for working with it:

1. Go in order or choose a topic that interests you.
2. The first two pages of each lesson contain lists of words or expressions, this will be your own dictionary reference. Next to the English words you need to write the translation. At the same time, if you study on your own, listen in an online dictionary to learn how to pronounce words correctly. Study them and try to remember them.
3. Do practical exercises without looking at the dictionary.
4. Check the exercises by referring to the dictionary you created.
5. Finally check your answers by referring to the keys at the end of the textbook.
6. After completing four units, take the test and, if necessary, return to the unclear topic.

There is no theoretical reference in the textbook, but it is an excellent source of practical exercises. There are tasks in the form of tests, crosswords, answering questions, word choice, etc.

Features of the textbook

At the end of the textbook, answers to self-test tasks are given. There you will also find short lexical comments for each lesson. In the units you will see marks with a REF icon, this means that for explanations you should refer to the reference book at the end of the textbook.

For those who want to track their achievements, there is a special page at the end of the textbook with Self assessment and progress check. Here you can note which topics were easy for you and do not require repetition, and which ones will need to be revised, how many words you knew before the lesson, and how many after it, etc.

We wrote about seven textbooks on English vocabulary that have been tested by time and by our teachers. You can use all of them both for self-study and in lessons with a teacher. Learning new words using such manuals will allow you not only to learn new words, but also to learn how to use them correctly in your speech, which means that speaking English will become much easier for you.

Do you want an experienced mentor to help you expand your vocabulary and speak English fluently and competently? Try it.