International trade in goods (ITT), which appeared in ancient times and received additional impetus in connection with the formation of the world market, continues to be the leading form of international economic relations. It represents the totality of exports and imports.

EXPORT OF GOODS (from the Latin exportare - to export) - the export of goods from a given country for their sale in foreign markets. The concept of export includes both the goods themselves exported abroad and a transaction, that is, an action aimed at selling them to a foreign counterparty. Exports include goods produced in the country and goods previously imported from abroad (re-export).

Depending on the types of goods, there are several ways to export them. Raw materials and unprocessed food products are usually exported by specialized trading companies who pre-purchase goods from manufacturers on their own behalf and from their own account. Manufacturers of industrial goods such as equipment, ships, rolling stock railways and other specialized products, as a rule, are exported either on the basis of direct contacts with the importer, or through a network of their representative offices and agency firms.

The most common method of exporting consumer goods is to sell them through general trading houses. In cases where the supply of consumer goods is carried out in small quantities, mail order is used by sending out catalogs. Firms that consistently focus production on exports usually strive to organize their own sales network abroad, for which they create foreign branches and subsidiaries, which are divided into foreign wholesale offices, enterprises retail, repair companies, service points.

In addition to manufacturers of export products, specialized foreign trade enterprises participate in foreign sales. They are divided into export-import firms and trading houses - enterprises that carry out foreign trade transactions both from their own account and on a commission basis with a wide range of goods. In the first case, the company first purchases goods from a national or foreign manufacturer and then resells them on its own behalf. In the second case, trade is carried out at the expense and on behalf of the manufacturer or buyer. Export companies, unlike trading houses, are not universal in nature, but specialize in the sale of a certain group of goods. The objects of their trade are mainly consumer goods, mining, Agriculture, as well as "handicrafts. Agency firms, which are usually legal entity importing country, sell goods of a foreign company exclusively on a commission basis. They operate on the basis of long-term agreements ( agency agreements) with a foreign exporter and allow the latter to avoid intermediary companies and the costs of creating their own distribution network. The firm receives a commission, which is usually charged to the seller in the amount of up to 10% of the transaction value.

IMPORT OF GOODS (from the Latin importare - to import) - the import of goods from abroad for their sale in the domestic market of the importing country. One country's imports always match another country's exports. Imports are goods of foreign origin imported directly from the producing country or intermediary country for the purpose of consumption or subsequent export from the country.

The structure of imports of material assets (visible imports) is determined by the characteristics natural conditions, the structure of the country's economy and its role in the international division of labor. Countries, first of all, import those types of mineral, agricultural raw materials and food that, due to natural conditions, they cannot produce themselves.

In the imports of industrialized countries, the share of industrial goods, including machinery and equipment, is high, which is explained by the deepening of international specialization and cooperation in production. Developing countries, for which the import of machinery and equipment is extremely important for the industrialization of the economy, are at the same time forced, due to the backwardness of agriculture, to import certain types of food.

Imports, to a greater extent than exports, are subject to government influence, which is especially intensified during periods of deteriorating economic conditions on world markets and aggravation of the balance of payments problem. Imports are subject to customs duties, quantitative restrictions, licensing systems and other non-tariff barriers. In the context of the formation of the national economy and its transfer to a market economy, the state uses the levers of import restrictions to protect the interests of the national economy.

The sum of exports and imports of goods is called trade turnover. The ratio (difference) between a country's exports and its imports is the BALANCE OF TRADE. If exports exceed imports, then a “positive trade balance” is formed. If imports exceed exports, then a foreign trade deficit or “negative trade balance” arises. The latter suggests that the export of goods is not sufficient to pay for the import of goods. This deficit is financed either through foreign loans (by going into debt) or by reducing one’s own assets (exporting gold, currency, selling land, real estate, etc.).

To analyze the dynamics of MTT, indicators of the value and physical volume of foreign trade are used. The value of foreign trade is calculated for a certain period of time in current prices of the analyzed years using current exchange rates. The physical volume of foreign trade is calculated in constant prices and allows making the necessary comparisons and determining its real dynamics.

International commodity flows may be influenced by the following factors: scientific and technological progress, changing the structure of world trade; liberalization of international trade; economic integration; active activity of transnational and international corporations in the global market; world crises, etc.

Forms of international economic relations

The country's balance of payments and its structure

1. International trade in goods and services. Technology as a commodity on the world market.

2. International monetary relations.

3. International labor migration.

4. Balance of payments of the country. Structure of the balance of payments.

5. Trends in the development of international economic relations in the 21st century. Prospects for the participation of the Republic of Belarus in international economic relations.

Introduction

Currently, the process of globalization and integration of various countries into the world economic community is flourishing. Now it is impossible to imagine a world without all kinds of interrelations between countries in matters of trade in goods, services, technologies, etc. At the same time everything higher value acquire financial and credit relations between countries in the global economic space. International financial and credit organizations (for example, the IMF) are created that mediate such relationships. All these factors determine the relevance of this issue, especially since the development prospects for the Republic of Belarus are a maximally open economy, the development of trade and credit and financial relations with various countries of the world, which will undoubtedly have a beneficial effect on the economy of our country.

International trade in goods and services. Technology as a commodity on the world market.

International trade is the exchange of goods and services between different countries, associated with the general internationalization of economic life and the intensification of the international division of labor in the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution.

Foreign trade arose in ancient times. In formations based on subsistence farming, a small portion of products entered international exchange, mainly luxury goods, spices, and some types of mineral raw materials.

A powerful stimulus for the development of international trade was the transition from subsistence farming to commodity-money relations, as well as the creation of national states, the establishment industrial relations both within countries and between them.

The creation of large-scale industry made it possible to make a qualitative leap in the development of productive forces in international trade. This led to an increase in the scale of production and improved transportation of goods, i.e. preconditions were created for the expansion of economic and trade relations between countries, and at the same time the need to expand international trade increased. On modern stage international trade is the most developed form of international economic relations. Its necessity is due to the following factors:

Firstly, the formation of the world market as one of the historical prerequisites of the capitalist mode of production;

Secondly, the uneven development of individual industries in different countries Oh; products of the most dynamically developing industries, which cannot be sold on the domestic market, are exported abroad;

Thirdly, the tendency that has arisen at the current stage of economic development towards limitless expansion of production volumes, while the capacity of the domestic market is limited by the effective demand of the population. Therefore, production inevitably outgrows the limits of domestic demand, and entrepreneurs in each country wage a stubborn struggle for foreign markets.

Consequently, the interest of individual countries in expanding their international relations is explained by the need to sell products on foreign markets, the need to obtain certain goods from outside and, finally, the desire to extract higher profits due to the use of cheap labor and raw materials from developing countries.

There are a number of indicators that characterize a country’s activity in world trade:

1. Export quota – the ratio of the volume of exported goods and services to GDP/GNP; at the industry level it is specific gravity goods and services exported by the industry in their total volume. Characterizes the degree of inclusion of the country in foreign economic relations.

2. Export potential is the share of products that a certain country can sell on the world market without damaging its own economy.

3. Export structure - the ratio or share of exported goods by type and degree of processing. The structure of exports allows us to highlight the raw materials or machine-technological orientation of exports and determine the country’s role in international industrial specialization.

Thus, a high share of manufacturing products in a country’s exports, as a rule, indicates a high scientific, technical and production level of the industries whose products are exported.

4. Import structure, especially the ratio of the volumes of raw materials imported into the country and finished final products. This indicator most accurately reflects the dependence of the country’s economy on the foreign market and the level of development of sectors of the national economy.

5. Comparative ratio of the country’s share in world GDP/GNP production and its share in world trade. So, if a country’s share in the world production of any type of product is 10%, and its share in international trade of this product is 1-2%, then this may mean that the goods produced do not meet the world quality level as a consequence low level development of this industry.

6. The volume of exports per capita characterizes the degree of openness of the economy of a given state.

The world's largest exporters include Germany, Japan, USA, France, Great Britain, and Italy. Among developing countries, it is necessary to highlight the so-called “newly industrialized countries” South-East Asia(NIS SEA), namely: Hong Kong (Hong Kong), South Korea, Singapore and Taiwan, the total exports of which exceed the exports of France, as well as China, in the Middle East - Saudi Arabia, in Latin America- Brazil and Mexico. These countries occupy approximately the same position in world imports. The world's largest importer is the United States.

The export and import of services (invisible exports) play an important role in international trade:

1) all types of international and transit transport;

2) foreign tourism;

3) telecommunications;

4) banking and insurance;

5) computer software;

6) health care and education services, etc.

With a decrease in exports of some traditional services, there is an increase in services related to the use of scientific and technical achievements.

Natural properties many goods (beef, oranges, mineral fuels) are more or less similar. The main factor in their competitiveness is price, or rather the costs of production, storage and transportation. These costs are determined by the cost of labor and the level of labor productivity, which largely depends on the technical equipment of production.

The main form of struggle for markets for such goods is price competition.

The basis of competition in the market finished products are the consumer properties of the product. This is largely due to the fact that the quality of finished products is variable.

We can highlight one more type of product on the world market - technology. Technology is scientific methods for achieving practical goals. The concept of technology usually includes three groups of technologies: product technology, process technology and control technology.

International technology transfer is the interstate movement of scientific and technological achievements on a commercial or free basis.

The objects of the global technology market are the results of intellectual activity in materialized (equipment, units, tools, technological lines, etc.) and intangible forms (various types of technical documentation, knowledge, experience, services, etc.).

The subjects of the global technology market are states, universities, firms, non-profit organizations, foundations and individuals - scientists and specialists.

Technology becomes a commodity, that is, a product that can only be sold under certain conditions. Technology is approaching becoming a commodity at a certain stage of the “idea-market” movement, namely when the real possibility of commercializing an idea is realized, an examination has been carried out, screening has been carried out, and possible areas of use have been identified. And even in this case, the product-technology must be marketable, that is, meet the standard requirements for the product. By acquiring a marketable form (patent, production experience, know-how, equipment, etc.), technology becomes a commodity and can be the subject of technology transfer.

Technology transfer is carried out in various forms, different ways and through different channels.

Forms of technology transfer on a non-commercial basis:

– huge information arrays of specialized literature, computer data banks, patents, reference books, etc.;

– conferences, exhibitions, symposiums, seminars, clubs, including permanent ones;

– training, internship, practice of students, scientists and specialists, carried out on a parity basis by universities, firms, organizations, etc.;

– migration of scientists and specialists, including international, the so-called “brain drain” from scientific to commercial structures and vice versa, the establishment of new high-tech venture-type firms by specialists from universities and corporations, the creation of foreign marketing and research divisions by large corporations.

The main flow of technology transfer in non-commercial form comes from non-patentable information - fundamental R&D, business games, scientific discoveries and unpatented inventions.

In addition to the official one, the illegal “transfer” of technology has recently become widespread in the form of industrial espionage and technological “piracy” - the mass production and sale of imitative technologies by shadow structures. Technological piracy is most developed in the NIS of Southeast Asia.

The main forms of commercial transfer of information are:

– sale of technology in materialized form – machines, units, automatic and electronic equipment, technological lines, etc.;

– foreign investments and the accompanying construction, reconstruction, modernization of enterprises, firms, production, if they are accompanied by an influx of investment goods, as well as leasing;

– sale of patents (patent agreements are an international trade transaction under which the owner of the patent assigns his rights to use the invention to the buyer of the patent. Typically, small, highly specialized firms that are not able to put the invention into production sell patents to large corporations);

– sale of licenses for all types of patented industrial property, except for trademarks (license agreements - an international trade transaction under which the owner of an invention or technical knowledge grants the other party permission to use, within certain limits, its rights to the technology);

– sale of licenses for unpatented types of industrial property - “know-how”, production secrets, technological experience, accompanying documents for equipment, instructions, diagrams, as well as training of specialists, advisory support, examination, etc. (“know-how” - provision technical experience and production secrets, including information of a technological, economic, administrative, financial nature, the use of which provides certain advantages. The subject of sale in this case is usually unpatented inventions of commercial value);

– joint R&D, scientific and production cooperation;

–engineering – provision of technological knowledge necessary for the acquisition, installation and use of purchased or leased machinery and equipment. They include a wide range of activities for the preparation of feasibility studies of projects, consultations, supervision, design, testing, warranty and post-warranty service.

Almost all technology transfer in commercial form is formalized or accompanied by a licensing agreement.

International trade is the exchange of goods and money between countries. The World Trade Organization (WTO) plays a decisive role in regulating international trade in goods and services.

Goods entering the foreign market form the world market for goods; services – global services market. A third of all world trade is accounted for by trade in services. International trade in services has its own specifics: intangibility, invisibility, continuity of production and consumption, heterogeneity and variability of quality, inability of services to be stored.

It is precisely because of the intangibility and invisibility of most services that trade in them is sometimes called invisible exports or imports. However, even in this case there are many exceptions. Typically, services do not have a materialized form, although a number of services are materialized in the form of computer programs on magnetic media, films, and various documentation.

Services, unlike goods, are produced and consumed largely simultaneously and cannot be stored. In this regard, the presence abroad of direct producers of services or foreign consumers in the country of production of services is required. Services, unlike operations with goods, are not subject to customs control.

The development of the service sector is greatly influenced by scientific and technological progress: new types of services appear, the quality of service improves, technical barriers to the transfer of some services are removed, and this opens up a global market for them. All this confirms that the service sector, over the past two decades, has been one of the most dynamically developing sectors of the world economy.

Services in the global market typically include transport and communications, trade, logistics, household, housing and public utilities, catering, hotel management, tourism, financial and insurance services, science, education, healthcare, physical education and sports; culture and art, as well as engineering and consulting, information and computing services, real estate transactions, market research services, organization of marketing activities, after-sales service, etc. In a number of countries, construction is also included in the services. Of course different types services are involved in international exchange and with varying degrees of intensity. In this sense, for example, on the one hand, transport and communications, tourism and, on the other hand, public utilities and household services are very different.

International trade in services, unlike trade in goods, where the role of trade intermediation is great, is based on direct contacts between producers and consumers. Because services, unlike goods, are produced and consumed mostly simultaneously and cannot be stored. Because of this, international trade in services requires either the presence of their direct producers abroad, or the presence of foreign consumers in the country producing the services. At the same time, the development of computer science has significantly expanded the possibilities of providing many types of services at a distance.

International trade in services is closely linked to and continues to have a major impact on trade in goods. To supply goods to foreign markets, more and more services are required, from market analysis to the transport of goods and their after-sales service. The role of services is especially great in the trade of knowledge-intensive goods, which require large volumes of after-sales service, information and various consulting (consulting) services. The volume and quality of services involved in the production and sale of goods largely determine the success of the latter in the foreign market.

international trade - is the exchange of goods and services between sellers and buyers of different countries, mediated by currency exchange. From the point of view of an individual national economy, international trade takes the form foreign trade - a set of exchange transactions of goods and services of a single country with other countries of the world.

International trade consists of two basic counter flows: export export and sale of goods (provision of services) abroad and import - purchasing and importing goods (receiving services) from abroad. Special types of import and export are re-export and re-import. Re-export - this is the export of goods previously imported from abroad that were not processed in a given country, as well as goods sold at international auctions, commodity exchanges, etc. Re-import - this is the import from abroad of goods previously exported from the country without any processing in the foreign country.

Objects international trade is goods (final products for industrial and non-industrial purposes, semi-finished products, raw materials, fuel, etc.) and services (business, financial, computer, information, transport, tourism, etc.).

Subjects international trade are:

Direct buyers and sellers of goods and services, which are represented by states, legal entities and individuals;

Resellers are firms and institutions that help speed up the sale of goods;

International and intergovernmental organizations that form the institutional environment and provide economic and legal regulation of trade.

International trade methods

In international practice, two main implementation methods export-import operations - trade without intermediaries And trade through intermediaries. Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Direct conclusion of a transaction between the seller and the buyer allows you to save on paying for the services of an intermediary and reduces the risk of losses from possible dishonesty or incompetence. Direct contacts can contribute to better orientation of sellers to the changing requirements of buyers and the introduction of necessary changes in the characteristics of the product, etc. At the same time, firms resorting to direct trade are forced to incur costs for studying and analyzing sales markets, for creating sales centers in other countries networks, for the maintenance of lawyers for the preparation of agreements, transportation and implementation of customs formalities, etc. If the costs of direct trade exceed the benefits from it, it is advisable to resort to the services of intermediaries.

Trade intermediaries can be both legal entities and individuals who, on a commercial basis, carry out the search for foreign partners, preparation of documentation for signing contracts, credit and financial services, transportation, storage, insurance of goods, after-sales service, etc. The participation of intermediaries, first of all, frees manufacturers from the sale of goods, increases the efficiency of sales and, by reducing distribution costs, increases the profitability of foreign economic transactions. Typically, specialized intermediaries respond more quickly to changes in market conditions, which also increases the efficiency of trade.

In the practice of international trade, the following types of intermediary operations are distinguished:

- dealerships, in which an intermediary trading company buys the goods from the manufacturer who resells them, acting on its own behalf and at its own expense, and bears all the risks of loss or destruction of the goods; goods are sold under dealer agreements distributors;

- Commission, in which the reseller sells and buys goods on his own behalf, but at the expense and on behalf of the guarantor, in an agreement with which the technical and commercial conditions of sale and purchase are stipulated and the amount of the commission is determined;

- agency, in which the intermediary acts on behalf of the principal and at his expense; representative agents carry out marketing research, advertising and PR campaigns, organize business contacts with importers, government and other organizations on which the placement of orders depends; agent-attorneys have the right, on the basis of a mandate agreement, to enter into transactions on behalf of the principal;

- brokerage, for which trading companies or individuals bring together sellers and buyers, coordinate their proposals, conclude transactions at the expense of the principal, acting on his behalf and on their own.

A special place among international trade intermediaries is occupied by institutional intermediaries - commodity exchanges, auctions and trades (tenders).

International commodity exchanges are permanent wholesale markets where the purchase and sale of homogeneous goods is carried out with clear and stable quality characteristics, corresponding to the unified standardization system. According to their organizational and legal form, most exchanges are joint stock companies closed type. Depending on the range of goods, exchanges are divided into universal And specialized. The largest in terms of transaction volumes are universal exchanges, where the purchase and sale of a wide range of various goods takes place. For example, on the Chicago Board of Trade exchange (more than 40% of the volume of US agreements) wheat, corn, oats, soybeans, soybean oil, gold, and securities are traded. On specialized exchanges, goods of a narrow range are sold and bought, for example, on the London Stock Exchange metals trade in non-ferrous metals - copper, aluminum, nickel, etc.

The sale of exchange-traded goods is mainly carried out without their delivery to the exchange, using samples or standard descriptions. In fact, on a commodity exchange it is not goods as such that are sold, but contracts for their supply. Transactions with real goods constitute a small share of the total volume of exchange transactions (12%). Depending on the delivery time, they are divided into transactions with immediate delivery (“spot”), when the goods are transferred from the exchange warehouse to the buyer within 15 days after the conclusion of the contract, and transactions involving the delivery of goods at a specific date in the future at the price fixed at the time of conclusion of the contract (forward transactions). The vast majority of exchange transactions are futures transactions. Unlike transactions on real goods, futures contracts provide for the purchase and sale of rights to goods at the price that is set at the time of the transaction between the seller and the buyer (or their brokers) on the exchange.

Exchange futures perform an important function of insuring the risk of losses from changes in prices of real goods - hedging. The hedging mechanism is based on the fact that changes in market prices for real goods and futures are the same in size and direction. Consequently, if one of the parties to the transaction loses as a seller of a real commodity, then he wins as a buyer of a futures contract for the same amount of commodity, and vice versa. Let us assume that the manufacturing company copper wire signed a contract for the supply of a certain quantity in 6 months. She needs 3 months to complete the order. It is unprofitable to purchase copper 6 months before the order is completed: it will be stored in a warehouse for 3 months, which will require storage costs and the payment of additional interest on the loan for its purchase. At the same time, postponing its purchase is also risky, since the market price of copper may rise. Taking this into account, the company buys futures for the required amount of copper. Let the futures quote be 95.2 thousand dollars with the price of a real commodity being 95.0 thousand dollars. After 3 months, copper has risen in price, which also caused an increase in the futures price: the same amount of copper now costs 96.0 thousand dollars, and futures - 96.2 thousand dollars. By buying copper as a real commodity for 96.0 thousand dollars, the company loses 10 thousand dollars. But it sells the futures at 96.2 thousand dollars and thereby wins 10 thousand. dollars. Thus, the company has insured itself against losses due to price increases and will be able to receive the planned profit.

International auctions represent a form of public purchase and sale of goods based on price competition among buyers. The subject of auctions are goods that have expressed individual properties- furs, tea, tobacco, spices, flowers, racehorses, antiques, etc. Preparation for auction sales involves the formation of lots - batches of goods of uniform quality, each of which is assigned a number. Under this number, the lot indicating the characteristics of the product is entered into the auction catalog. The general rule of all auctions is the lack of responsibility of the seller for the quality of the goods (the buyer himself sees the goods and knows what he is buying). Auctions are held on a predetermined day and time in a specially equipped room. The auctioneer announces the lot number, its starting price, and buyers make their offers regarding the price. The lot is sold to the highest bidder. The vast majority of auctions are carried out precisely according to this scheme, which is called the “English auction”. In some countries, a price reduction method is used, which is called the “Dutch auction”: the auctioneer announces the highest price of the lot and, if there are no people willing to purchase the goods at this price, begins to gradually reduce her until the item is sold. The most famous are tea auctions in Kolkata (India), Colombo (Sri Lanka), Jakarta (Indonesia), antique auctions - Sotheby's and Christie's in London, fur auctions in Copenhagen (Norway) and St. Petersburg (Russia) .

International trading (tenders) It is also a competitive form of purchase and sale of goods, in which buyers announce a competition for sellers to supply goods with certain technical and economic characteristics. International tenders are the most common way of placing orders for the construction of production and non-production facilities, the supply of machinery and equipment, and the implementation of research and development design work, they are also used to select a foreign partner when creating joint venture. All interested companies can take part in open tenders; in closed tenders, only those that have received an invitation to participate, usually these are well-known suppliers or contractors on the world market. Buyers create a tender committee, which includes representatives of the buying organization, as well as technical and commercial experts. After comparing the proposals received, the winner of the auction is determined, who offered the goods on more favorable terms for the buyer and on which the buyer signs a contract.

The most expressive modern trends in the development of international tender trade are an increase in the number of participants, an increase in the number of tenders for the construction of complex facilities, for new types of machinery, equipment, new technologies, engineering consulting services, a significant reorientation of priorities from price factors to non-price factors (the possibility of obtaining loans for preferential conditions, the possibility of further placing orders and long-term cooperation, political factors, etc.).

International trade is a system of international commodity-money relations, consisting of foreign trade of all countries of the world. International trade arose during the emergence of the world market in the 16th-18th centuries. Its development is one of the important factors in the development of the world economy of the New Age.

The term international trade was first used in the 12th century by the Italian economist Antonio Margaretti, author of the economic treatise “Power of the Popular Masses in Northern Italy.”

Advantages of countries participating in international trade:

• the intensification of the reproduction process in national economies is a consequence of increased specialization, the creation of opportunities for the emergence and development of mass production, an increase in the level of equipment utilization, and an increase in the efficiency of the introduction of new technologies;
• an increase in export supplies entails an increase in employment;
• international competition creates the need to improve enterprises;
• export earnings serve as a source of capital accumulation aimed at industrial development.

Theories of international trade

The development of world trade is based on the benefits it brings to the countries participating in it. The theory of international trade gives an idea of ​​what is the basis of this gain from foreign trade, or what determines the directions of foreign trade flows. International trade serves as a tool through which countries, by developing their specialization, can increase the productivity of existing resources and thus increase the volume of goods and services they produce and improve the level of well-being of the population.

Many famous economists have dealt with international trade issues. Basic theories of international trade - Mercantilist theory, A. Smith's theory of absolute advantage, D. Ricardo and D. S. Mill's theory of comparative advantage, Heckscher-Ohlin theory, Leontief paradox, Theory life cycle goods, M. Porter's Theory, Rybczynski's Theorem, and Samuelson and Stolper's Theory.

Mercantilist theory. Mercantilism is a system of views of economists of the 15th-17th centuries, focused on the active intervention of the state in economic activity. Representatives of the direction: Thomas Maine, Antoine de Montchretien, William Stafford. The term was proposed by Adam Smith, who criticized the works of mercantilists. The mercantilist theory of international trade arose during the period of initial accumulation of capital and great geographical discoveries, and was based on the idea that the presence of gold reserves was the basis for the prosperity of a nation. Foreign trade, the mercantilists believed, should be focused on obtaining gold, since in the case of simple commodity exchange, ordinary goods, once used, cease to exist, and gold accumulates in the country and can be used again for international exchange.

Trading was viewed as a zero-sum game, where the gain of one participant automatically means the loss of another, and vice versa. To obtain maximum benefits, it was proposed to strengthen government intervention and control over the state of foreign trade. The trade policy of the mercantilists, called protectionism, was to create barriers in international trade that protect domestic producers from foreign competition, stimulate exports and limit imports by introducing customs duties on foreign goods and receiving gold and silver in return for their goods.

The main provisions of the Mercantilist theory of international trade:

• the need to maintain an active trade balance of the state (excess of exports over imports);
• recognition of the benefits of bringing gold and other precious metals into the country in order to improve its welfare;
• money is a stimulus for trade, since it is believed that an increase in the supply of money increases the volume of the commodity supply;
• protectionism aimed at importing raw materials and semi-finished products and exporting finished products is welcomed;
• restrictions on the export of luxury goods, as it leads to the outflow of gold from the state.

Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage. In his work “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,” in a polemic with mercantilists, Smith formulated the idea that countries are interested in the free development of international trade because they can benefit from it regardless of whether they are exporters or importers. Each country must specialize in the production of that product where it has an absolute advantage - a benefit based on different amounts of production costs in individual countries participating in foreign trade. Refusal to produce goods for which countries do not have absolute advantages, and the concentration of resources on the production of other goods lead to an increase in overall production volumes and an increase in the exchange of products of their labor between countries.

Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage suggests that a country's real wealth consists of the goods and services available to its citizens. If a country can produce a particular good more and cheaper than other countries, then it has an absolute advantage. Some countries can produce goods more efficiently than others. The country's resources flow into profitable industries because the country cannot compete in unprofitable industries. This leads to an increase in the country's productivity as well as the skill of the workforce; long periods of production of homogeneous products provide stimulation for the production of more effective methods work.

Natural advantages for a particular country: climate; territory; resources. Acquired advantages for a particular country: production technology, that is, the ability to produce a variety of products.

The theory of comparative advantage by D. Ricardo and D. S. Mill. In his work “Principles of Political Economy and Taxation,” Ricardo showed that the principle of absolute advantage is only a special case of the general rule, and substantiated the theory of comparative advantage. When analyzing the directions of development of foreign trade, two circumstances should be taken into account: firstly, economic resources - natural, labor, etc. - are distributed unevenly between countries, and secondly, the efficient production of various goods requires various technologies or combinations of resources.

The advantages that countries have are not given once and for all, D. Ricardo believed, therefore even countries that have absolutely more high levels production costs, can benefit from trade exchange. It is in the interests of each country to specialize in production in which it has the greatest advantage and the least weakness and for which not absolute, but relative benefit is the greatest - this is D. Ricardo’s law of comparative advantage. According to Ricardo, the total volume of output will be greatest when each product is produced by the country in which the opportunity costs are lower. Thus, comparative advantage is a benefit based on lower opportunity costs in the exporting country. Hence, as a result of specialization and trade, both countries involved in the exchange will benefit. An example in this case would be the exchange of English cloth for Portuguese wine, which brings benefits to both countries, even if the absolute costs of production of both cloth and wine are lower in Portugal than in England.

Subsequently, D.S. Mill, in his work “Foundations of Political Economy,” explained the price at which exchange is carried out. According to Mill, the price of exchange is set by the laws of supply and demand at such a level that the totality of each country's exports allows it to pay for the totality of its imports - this is the law of international value.

Heckscher-Ohlin theory. This theory of scientists from Sweden, which appeared in the 30s of the twentieth century, refers to the neoclassical concepts of international trade, since these economists did not adhere to the labor theory of value, considering capital and land productive, along with labor. Therefore, the reason for their trade is the different availability of factors of production in countries participating in international trade.

The main provisions of their theory boiled down to the following: firstly, countries have a tendency to export those goods for the production of which the factors of production available in abundance in the country are used, and, conversely, to import goods for the production of which relatively rare factors are needed; secondly, in international trade there is a tendency to equalize “factor prices”; third, the export of goods can be replaced by the movement of factors of production across national borders.

The neoclassical concept of Heckscher-Ohlin turned out to be convenient for explaining the reasons for the development of trade between developed and developing countries, when in exchange for raw materials coming to developed countries, machinery and equipment were imported into developing countries. However, not all phenomena of international trade fit into the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, since today the center of gravity of international trade is gradually shifting to mutual trade of “similar” goods between “similar” countries.

Leontief's paradox. These are studies by an American economist who questioned the provisions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory and showed that in the post-war period the US economy specialized in those types of production that required relatively more labor rather than capital. The essence of Leontiev's paradox was that the share of capital-intensive goods in exports could grow, while labor-intensive goods could decline. In fact, when analyzing the US trade balance, the share of labor-intensive goods did not decrease. The solution to Leontief's paradox was that the labor intensity of goods imported by the United States is quite high, but the price of labor in the value of the product is much lower than in US exports. The capital intensity of labor in the United States is significant, together with high performance labor, this leads to a significant impact of labor prices in export supplies. The share of labor-intensive supplies in US exports is growing, confirming the Leontief paradox. This is due to the growth in the share of services, labor prices and the structure of the US economy. This leads to an increase in labor intensity throughout the American economy, not excluding exports.

Product life cycle theory. It was put forward and substantiated by R. Vernoy, C. Kindelberger and L. Wels. In their opinion, a product, from the moment it appears on the market until it leaves it, goes through a cycle consisting of five stages:

• product development. The company finds and implements new idea goods. At this time, sales are zero and costs are rising.
• bringing the product to market. There is no profit due to high costs for marketing activities, sales volume is slowly growing;
• rapid market penetration, increased profits;
• maturity. Sales growth is slowing down, since the bulk of consumers have already been attracted. The level of profit remains unchanged or decreases due to increased costs of marketing activities to protect the product from competition;
• decline Decline in sales and reduction in profits.

M. Porter's theory. This theory introduces the concept of country competitiveness. It is national competitiveness, from Porter’s point of view, that determines the success or failure in specific industries and the place that a country occupies in the world economic system. National competitiveness is determined by the capacity of industry. At the heart of the explanation competitive advantage The role of the home country lies in stimulating renewal and improvement (that is, in stimulating the production of innovations). Government measures to maintain competitiveness:

• government influence on factor conditions;
• government influence on demand conditions;
• government impacts on related and supporting industries;
• government influence on firm strategy, structure, and competition.

A serious incentive to success in the global market is sufficient competition in the domestic market. Artificial dominance of enterprises using state support, from Porter’s point of view, is a negative decision that leads to waste and inefficient use of resources. M. Porter’s theoretical premises served as the basis for developing recommendations for state level to increase the competitiveness of foreign trade goods in Australia, New Zealand and the USA in the 90s of the twentieth century.

Rybczynski's theorem. The theorem states that if the value of one of the two factors of production increases, then in order to maintain constant prices for goods and factors it is necessary to increase the production of those products that intensively use this increased factor, and reduce the production of other products that intensively use the fixed factor. In order for the prices of goods to remain constant, the prices of factors of production must remain constant. Factor prices can remain constant only if the ratio of factors used in two industries remains constant. In the case of growth of one factor, this can only occur if production in the industry in which that factor is intensively used is increased and production in another industry is reduced, which will lead to the release of the fixed factor, which will become available for use along with the growing factor in the expanding industry .

Samuelson and Stolper theory. In the middle of the 20th century. (1948) American economists P. Samuelson and V. Stolper improved the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, imagining that in the case of homogeneity of production factors, identity of technology, perfect competition and complete mobility of goods, international exchange equalizes the price of factors of production between countries. The authors base their concept on Ricardo's model with additions from Heckscher and Ohlin and view trade not just as a mutually beneficial exchange, but also as a means to reduce the development gap between countries.

Development and structure of international trade

International trade is a form of exchange of labor products in the form of goods and services between sellers and buyers of different countries. The characteristics of international trade are the volume of world trade turnover, the commodity structure of exports and imports and its dynamics, as well as the geographical structure of international trade. Export is the sale of goods to a foreign buyer and their export abroad. Import is the purchase of goods from foreign sellers with their import from abroad.

Modern international trade is developing at a fairly high pace. Among the main trends in the development of international trade, the following can be identified:

1. There is a preferential development of trade compared to industries material production and the entire world economy as a whole. Thus, according to some estimates, during the period from the 50s to the 90s of the 20th century, the world's GDP grew approximately 5 times, and merchandise exports - no less than 11 times. Accordingly, if in 2000 the world's GDP was estimated at $30 trillion, then the volume of international trade - exports plus imports - was $12 trillion.

2. In the structure of international trade, the share of manufacturing products is growing (up to 75%), of which more than 40% are engineering products. Only 14% is fuel and other raw materials, the share of agricultural products is about 9%, clothing and textiles are 3%.

3. Among the changes in the geographical direction of international trade flows, there is an increasing role of developed countries and China. However, developing countries (mainly due to the emergence of new industrial countries with a pronounced export orientation from among them) managed to significantly increase their influence in this area. In 1950, they accounted for only 16% of world trade turnover, and by 2001 - already 41.2%.

Since the second half of the 20th century, uneven dynamics of foreign trade have become evident. In the 1960s, Western Europe is the main center of international trade. Its exports were almost 4 times higher than US exports. By the end of the 1980s, Japan began to become a leader in terms of competitiveness. During the same period, the “new industrial countries” of Asia - Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan - joined it. However, by the mid-1990s, the United States took a leading position in the world in terms of competitiveness. Exports of goods and services in the world in 2007, according to the WTO, amounted to 16 trillion. US dollars. The share of the goods group is 80%, and services - 20% of the total trade volume in the world.

4. The most important area of ​​development of foreign trade is intra-company trade within TNCs. According to some data, intra-company international deliveries account for up to 70% of all world trade, 80–90% of sales of licenses and patents. Since TNCs are the most important link in the global economy, world trade is at the same time trade within the framework of TNCs.

5. Trade in services is expanding, in several ways. Firstly, there is cross-border supply, e.g. distance learning. Another way of supplying services - consumption abroad - involves the movement of the consumer or the movement of his property to the country where the service is provided, for example, the service of a guide on a tourist trip. The third method is a commercial presence, for example, the operation of a foreign bank or restaurant in the country. And the fourth way is movement individuals who are service providers abroad, such as doctors or teachers. The leaders in trade in services are the most developed countries of the world.

Regulation of international trade

Regulation of international trade is divided into government regulation and regulation through international agreements and the creation of international organizations.

Methods government regulation International trade can be divided into two groups: tariff and non-tariff.

1. Tariff methods come down to the use of customs duties - special taxes levied on internationally traded products. Customs tariffs are fees levied by the state for processing the transportation of goods and other valuables abroad. This fee, called duty, is taken into account in the price of the product and is ultimately paid by the consumer. Customs taxation involves the use of import duties to hinder the import of foreign goods into the country; export duties are used less frequently.

According to the form of calculation, duties are distinguished:

a) ad valorem, which are charged as a percentage of the price of the product;

b) specific, charged in the form of a certain amount of money per volume, weight or unit of goods.

The most important goals of using import duties are both direct restriction of imports and restriction of competition, including unfair competition. Its extreme form is dumping - the sale of goods on the foreign market at prices lower than those existing for an identical product on the domestic market.

2. Non-tariff methods are diverse and represent a set of direct and indirect restrictions on foreign economic activity through an extensive system of economic, political and administrative measures. These include:

• quotas (provisioning) - the establishment of quantitative parameters within which it is possible to carry out certain foreign trade operations. In practice, quotas are usually established in the form of lists of goods, the free import or export of which is limited to a percentage of the volume or value of their national production. When the quantity or amount of the contingent is exhausted, the export (import) of the corresponding product is terminated;
• licensing – issuing special permits (licenses) to business entities to conduct foreign trade operations. It is often used in conjunction with quotas to control license-based quotas. In some cases, the licensing system acts as a type of customs taxation applied by a country to generate additional customs revenue;
• embargo – a ban on export-import operations. It may apply to a specific group of goods or be introduced in relation to individual countries;
• currency control is a restriction in the monetary sphere. For example, a financial quota may limit the amount of currency an exporter can receive. Quantitative restrictions may apply to the volume of foreign investment, the amount of foreign currency exported by citizens abroad, etc.;
• taxes on export-import transactions - taxes as non-tariff measures that are not regulated by international agreements, such as customs duties, and are therefore levied on both domestic and foreign goods. State subsidies for exporters are also possible;
• administrative measures that are mainly related to restrictions on the quality of goods sold on the domestic market. Important place occupy national standards. Failure to comply with country standards may lead to a ban on the import of imported products and their sale on the domestic market. Similarly, the system of national transport tariffs often creates advantages in paying for the transportation of goods to exporters compared to importers. In addition, other forms of indirect restrictions can also be used: closing certain ports to foreigners and railway stations, an instruction on the use of a certain share of national raw materials in the production of products, a ban on the purchase by state organizations of imported goods in the presence of national analogues, etc.

The high importance of MT for the development of the world economy has led to the creation by the world community of special international regulatory organizations, whose efforts are aimed at developing rules, principles, procedures for carrying out international trade transactions and monitoring their implementation by member states of these organizations.

A special role in regulating international trade is played by multilateral agreements operating within the framework of:

• GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade);
• WTO();
• GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services);
• TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement);

GATT. In accordance with the fundamental provisions of the GATT, trade between countries should be carried out on the basis of the most favored nation principle (MFN), i.e., most favored nation (MFN) treatment is established in the trade of GATT member countries, guaranteeing equality and non-discrimination. However, at the same time, exceptions from the PNB were established for countries included in economic integration groups; for countries, former colonies, which are in traditional ties with the former metropolises; for cross-border and coastal trade. According to the most rough estimates, “exceptions” account for at least 60% of world trade finished products, which deprives PNB of its universality.

GATT recognizes customs tariffs as the only acceptable means of regulating the transport industry, which are reduced iteratively (from round to round). Currently, their average level is 3-5%. But even here there are exceptions that allow the use of non-tariff means of protection (quotas, export and import licenses, tax breaks). These include cases of application of programs to regulate agricultural production, disturbances in the balance of payments, and the implementation of regional development and assistance programs.

GATT contains the principle of refusing unilateral actions and making decisions in favor of negotiations and consultations if such actions (decisions) could lead to a restriction of free trade.

GATT - the predecessor of the WTO - made its decisions at negotiation rounds of all members of this Agreement. There were eight of them in total. The most significant decisions that guide the WTO in regulating MT to date were made at the last (eighth) Uruguay round (1986-1994). This round further expanded the range of issues regulated by the WTO. It included trade in services, as well as a program to reduce customs duties, intensify efforts to regulate the trade goods of certain industries (including agriculture) and strengthen control over those areas of national economic policy that influence the country's foreign trade.

It was decided to escalate customs duties as the degree of processing of goods increases while reducing duties on raw materials and eliminating them for some types alcoholic drinks, construction and agricultural equipment, office furniture, toys, pharmaceutical products - only 40% of world imports. Liberalization of trade in clothing, textiles and agricultural products continued. But the last and only means of regulation is customs duties.

In the field of anti-dumping measures, the concepts of “legal subsidies” and “acceptable subsidies” were adopted, which include subsidies aimed at environmental protection and regional development, provided that their size is at least 3% of the total import of goods or 1% of its total cost. All others are classified as illegal and their use in foreign trade is prohibited.

Among the issues of economic regulation that indirectly affect foreign trade, the Uruguay Round included requirements for the minimum export of goods produced in joint ventures, the mandatory use of local components, and a number of others.

WTO. The Uruguay Round decided to create the WTO, which became the successor to the GATT and retained its main provisions. But the decisions of the round supplemented them with the tasks of ensuring free trade not only through liberalization, but also through the use of so-called links. The meaning of the links is that any government decisions to increase the tariff are made simultaneously (in conjunction) with the decision to liberalize the import of other goods. The WTO is not within the scope of the UN. This allows it to pursue its own independent policy and control over the activities of participating countries in compliance with adopted agreements.

GATS. The regulation of international trade in services has certain specifics. This is due to the fact that services, characterized by extreme diversity of forms and contents, do not form a single market that would have common features. But it has general trends that make it possible to regulate it at the global level, even taking into account new aspects in its development that are introduced by TNCs that dominate it and monopolize it. Currently, the global services market is regulated at four levels: international (global), industry (global), regional and national.

General regulation at the global level is carried out within the framework of the GATS, which came into force on January 1, 1995. Its regulation uses the same rules that were developed by the GATT in relation to goods: non-discrimination, national treatment, transparency (openness and uniformity of reading of laws), non-application of national laws to the detriment of foreign producers. However, the implementation of these rules is complicated by the peculiarities of services as goods: the absence of a material form for most of them, the coincidence of the time of production and consumption of services. The latter means that regulating the terms of trade in services means regulating the conditions for their production, and this in turn means regulating the conditions for investment in their production.

The GATS consists of three parts: a framework agreement defining general principles and rules for regulating trade in services; special agreements acceptable to individual service industries, and a list of obligations of national governments to eliminate restrictions in service industries. Thus, only one level, the regional level, falls outside the scope of GATS activities.

The GATS agreement is aimed at liberalizing trade in services and covers the following types: services in the field of telecommunications, finance and transport. Issues of export sales of films and television programs are excluded from the scope of its activities, which is associated with concerns individual states(European countries) lose the identity of their national culture.

Industry regulation of international trade in services is also carried out on a global scale, which is associated with their global production and consumption. Unlike the GATS, the organizations regulating such services are of a specialized nature. For example, civil air transport is regulated by the Organization of International civil aviation(ICAO), foreign tourism - World Tourism Organization (WTO), maritime transport - International Maritime Organization (IMO).

The regional level of international trade in services is regulated within the framework of economic integration groupings, in which restrictions on mutual trade in services are lifted (as, for example, in the EU) and restrictions on such trade with third countries can be introduced.

The national level of regulation concerns foreign trade in services of individual states. It is implemented through bilateral trade agreements, integral part which may be trade in services. A significant place in such agreements is given to the regulation of investments in the service sector.

Source - World economy: tutorial/ E.G.Guzhva, M.I.Lesnaya, A.V.Kondratiev, A.N.Egorov; SPbGASU. – St. Petersburg, 2009. – 116 p.