Discipline Begins at Birth Discipline begins with relationships, not with a list of educational methods. The first stage of discipline, the attachment stage, begins at birth and continues as you and your child grow up together. Main three principles

Obedience and discipline A blasphemous question arises: why, in fact, should a child obey? My answer to him is this: he must obey in order to satisfy an adult’s desire for power, why else? No, you say, he can get his feet wet if he doesn’t

Discipline and Freedom Discipline in freedom is a great principle which is not easily understood by the adherent of traditional school methods. How to achieve discipline in a class of free children? Of course, in our system the concept of discipline is very different from the generally accepted one. Once

Many great thinkers of the past imagined human society as a bearer of incessant total enmity of one and all. T. Hobbes calls natural state humanity, not yet limited by the existence of the state and laws, the “war of all against all.” “Man is a wolf to man,” says an old Latin proverb. “It lies in the very concept of spirit that man is evil by nature,” says G. Hegel.

Indeed, every person and every social group has specific economic, political, social interests and very often they turn out to be opposite to the similar interests of other people and. Hegel writes: “Man sets his goals from himself and draws from himself the material of his actions; By taking these goals to the last extreme, knowing and desiring only himself in his own particularity and rejecting the universal, man is evil, and this evil is his subjectivity.” Pursuing his interests, a person inevitably encounters resistance from others and enters into confrontation with them, in other words, he enters into conflict.

In the most general sense, it is an antagonistic relationship between two or more participants in an action, at least one of whom seeks to establish his dominance over the social field of their relationship.

Conflictology - science that studies conflicts, the causes of their occurrence, mechanisms and patterns of development conflict situations, subjects (parties) of conflicts, their negative and positive consequences, social functions, possibilities and methods of their prevention, localization, minimization and resolution.

The subject area of ​​conflictology includes:

• conflicts as social contradictions;
• parties to conflicts - feelings, ideas, values; individuals with different interests; social institutions; social communities; national communities, etc.;
• conflicts as processes that have a certain structure and conditions of occurrence - formation, deployment, resolution, prevention;
• conflict situations, social tensions, social deprivation;
• reasons, conditions, reasons for conflicts;
• the main types of substantive conflicts in society - environmental, economic, political, legal, etc.;
• main types of subjective conflicts in society (institutional, formational, civilizational, etc.); forecasting, warning, conflict resolution, etc.

Conflictology as a whole is a complex, interdisciplinary science in subject and methods, since it studies conflicts that arise both between individuals and even within a single personality (intrapersonal conflict - between the sides of her psyche or all social roles), and between groups, social strata and classes, religious denominations and political parties, social institutions and organizations, different generations, ethnic groups and nations, and finally, states. Bee subject also includes conflicts and contradictions between mental data - ideas, ideals and values, when real sides conflict are individuals and groups professing and promoting these ideals and values. Thus, conflictology directly borders on psychology in the study of intrapersonal conflicts; with general and social psychology in the study of interpersonal conflicts; with sociology - if we are talking about social conflict. In general, almost all humanities and social sciences are closely related to conflictology. After all, all categories of conflicts that arise in the sphere of human interaction are formed, develop and fade due to the clash of economic, social, group and individual interests; their immediate causes are the corresponding categories of events; conflicts often receive legal formalization and resolution, and therefore affect the sphere of legal relations in society. Therefore, conflictology disciplines study their subject in contact with economics, political science, and jurisprudence. At the same time, interethnic conflicts are studied by ethnology, ethnosociology, and ethnopsychology. Thus, these disciplines border on conflictology and enrich it with their concepts and approaches. Ultimately, conflictology always comes into direct contact with the science (sciences) that is basic in the study of the sphere of emergence and development of the specific conflict being studied.

Interethnic conflicts constitute a significant share of conflicts at the level large groups people, communities and states. Conflictology considers this group of conflicts as social conflicts, i.e. caused by social reasons, having social mechanisms development and causing social consequences.

According to a survey conducted by the Public Opinion Foundation in June 2007 (the survey was conducted in 100 populated areas 44 regions, territories and republics of Russia), in Russian Federation Today there are representatives of all nationalities former USSR. This fact is perceived ambiguously by Russians: approximately 37% have a positive attitude towards it and almost the same number (35%) have a negative attitude, and the differentiation of negative attitudes shows that a quarter of respondents (25%) experience open irritation and hostility towards the non-Russian-speaking population, which is confirmed by data from others researchers who note that in post-Soviet times, the term “person of Caucasian nationality”, often used in a negative sense, became entrenched in the mass consciousness of Russians. Almost 2/3 of respondents (62%) believe that the entry of representatives of certain nationalities into their regions should be restricted; 52% of respondents, who, by their admission, do not experience hostility towards representatives of other nationalities, would approve of the decision to evict some national groups outside their region, and, which is particularly alarming, more than a third of Russians (39%) are confident that the multinationality of Russia brings it does more harm than good.

Interethnic and ethno-confessional relations in modern Russia are an area of ​​increased social and political risks, where objective contradictions are easily ideologized, and nationalism becomes a method of political mobilization, a source of conflicts high intensity- right up to the armed ones. Now the situation in the country seems more stabilized. However, the problem has not disappeared, and one can hardly guarantee that somewhere in the depths of the heterogeneous, “different vector” Russian society, pockets of new “showdowns” based on interethnic hostility are not smoldering. The situation is complicated by the fact that contradictions between Russians and migrants are superimposed on Russia’s own internal problems. In addition, tensions in relations between Russia and the United States, Russia and a number of European countries, in particular with some neighboring European states that are aspiring or have joined NATO, contribute to the growth of suspicion towards other peoples and states.

Social conflictology explores intrapersonal, interpersonal and social conflicts from the point of view of their social conditioning, since in human society any conflict is caused not only and not so much psychological factors, how much social. For example, intrapersonal inter-role conflict arises when an individual, due to circumstances, is forced to perform several incompatible or even contradictory social roles. The requirements of these roles may turn out to be mutually exclusive and in this case severe internal conflict is inevitable. Despite the fact that such cases are of interest to psychology, since they are associated with deep personal experiences and cause psychological trauma, they are also the subject of research in social conflictology, for which the social component of the conflict is most interesting and relevant. The individuals entering it are also considered from a social-typical point of view - as bearers of specific social characteristics and qualities, holders of statuses and roles, representatives of classes and social groups. Social conflictology analyzes the group and individual interests and needs involved in interpersonal conflict, the value orientations and behavioral motivations manifested in it, studies various shapes social deprivation, i.e. “deprivation” of certain necessary social, spiritual and material goods which, ultimately, is the source and underlying cause of the conflict.

, constituting primarily the subject of social conflictology, can be considered as “an extreme case of aggravation of social contradictions, expressed in diverse forms of struggle between individuals and various social communities, aimed at achieving economic, social, political, spiritual interests and goals, neutralizing or eliminating a real or imaginary rival and not allowing him to achieve the realization of his interests.”

The emergence of a social conflict and its spread or attenuation are determined by the presence, nature and degree of development of social contradictions. Society is always, at all times, replete with contradictions. They manifest themselves in the economic sphere, in politics, ideology, in the field of cultural values ​​and norms. The main contradiction of the capitalist type of economic management identified by Marx is the contradiction between the social nature of labor and private form appropriation of a manufactured product is a classic example of an economic contradiction. Its reflection in politics is the confrontation of interests in the struggle for power. In the sphere of culture, there is always a contradiction between traditional values ​​and norms of society, on the one hand, and innovative ideas and normative ideas, on the other. The multiplicity of contradictions gives rise to a variety of social conflicts, differing in the causes and factors that caused them, in subjects and objects, in the nature of development, in the method of development and resolution, in the degree of severity and duration.

Specific aspect sociological analysis conflict is the study of it as a subject-object relationship. On the one hand, social conflict is a subjective action or state, since its participants and driving forces its development are represented by social subjects - individuals, groups, communities, classes, states. On the other hand, in any social conflict, objective contradictions are embodied and continued, existing independently of the will of the participants in the conflict, but manifested through their feelings, thoughts and actions. Any conflict revolves around a certain object - property, power, status, cultural values ​​and ideals. The sociology of conflict looks at it in order to understand the how and why of the data. social conditions objective contradictions develop to the level of open confrontation between subjects of social action.

Thus, social conflictology as a separate sociological discipline studies all groups of conflicts, primarily social conflict, from the point of view of analyzing their subjective and object components in their interaction, reveals social factors formation, development and attenuation of conflict using sociological methods to study the nature of conflicts as a social pattern.

Conflictology as a science.

The problem of conflict classification

Everyone probably knows what a conflict is. Quarrels, confrontations, fierce competition, aggravation of relations, insurmountable personal hostility, confrontation with the aim of seizing the initiative or achieving unilateral advantages.

These very difficult situations in life and activity, which are manifestations of conflicts, accompany a person almost always, from infancy to old age..

Conflicts, regardless of their degree of complexity, type and content, also differ in that the vast majority of their participants perceive this phenomenon as a very negative phenomenon associated with strong negative emotions, stress, worries, disappointments and losses. Those who are involved in conflict confrontation, as a rule, are in complex mental states, so it is quite rightly believed that conflicts have a very high psychological “price”.

The conflicting parties, regardless of the type of conflict, the number of its participants and their intellectual status, act practically according to the same patterns, use the same tactics and techniques of conflict confrontation, and, most interestingly, in a strictly defined sequence.

Naturally, inevitable questions arise from this:

How to recognize the true causes of conflicts?

How to learn to anticipate their appearance?

How to behave correctly with conflicting parties?

How can we learn to manage and resolve them in a fair and constructive manner?

The need to answer these questions required an in-depth study of the conflicts themselves and the development of a system of special knowledge about conflicts. As a result, a new science was formed and formalized - conflictology

Currently, conflictology is defined as a system of knowledge about the patterns and mechanisms of the emergence and development of conflicts, as well as the principles and technologies for managing them.

Conflictology is a special interdisciplinary field that combines theoretical, methodological and methodological approaches to the description, study and development of the practice of working with conflict phenomena of various kinds that arise in various areas of human interaction (N.V. Grishina, 2000, p. 34).

It is believed that conflictology emerged as an independent direction in sociology in the mid-50s of the 20th century, although scientific research on the sociology of conflict was published by G. Simmel at the beginning of the century. This point of view is associated with the publication of famous works by R. Dahrendorf and L. Coser. However, many of the ideas that served as the theoretical basis for conflictology were expressed a very long time ago.

At present, it can be stated that several relatively independent areas of conflictology:

organizational,

legal,

pedagogical,

production,

economic conflictology,

which interact closely with general conflict theory.

There is a process of intensive development in other directions as well. In particular, the studies of M. Sherif, D. Rappoport, R. Doz, L. Thompson, K. Thomas, M. Deutsch, D. Scott, N.V. Grishina and other authors determined the development of conflict psychology as the most important independent direction, where It is the subjective factors of conflicts that receive priority attention.

During the same period, the scientific and methodological foundations of conflict management practice began to be actively developed, based on psychological knowledge(S. Bower, G. Bower, G. Kelman, R. Fisher, W. Urey, etc.).

Each of the noted areas of conflictology has its own high scientific and practical significance.

The formation of conflictology as a scientific and applied branch of knowledge.

The first researchers to form the tradition of studying conflicts as a reaction to external influences were works on the study of aggression and the creation of the concept of frustration determination of aggression. These developments began with a series of studies carried out in the 30-50s by a group of specialists at Yale University (J. Dollard, L. Dub, N. Miller, A. Bandura, etc.).

Consideration of the concept of conflict is of interest from the perspective of two approaches: sociological and socio-psychological. The fundamental difference between these approaches is that

the first is focused on the analysis of social conflicts and their role in social life;

the second - on interactions, interpersonal relationships.

Sociological approach to the study of conflict is presented by the views of T. Parsons, G. Simmel, L. Coser, R. Dahrendorf, K. Marx, E. Mayo, R. Merton and others.

T. Parsosns, the founder of the functional (“equilibrium”) model of society, considered society as a single, stable system consisting of many functionally interrelated elements. The author developed the idea of ​​harmonization in social structure society.

From the point of view T. Parsons, conflict is a social disease that needs to be treated. The decisive role in stabilizing the social system belongs to social institutions (legal, religious, etc.), which carry out regulation in society through social control, restrictions, and prohibitions. Thus, for T. Parsons, conflict is destructive, dysfunctional and destructive. The norm, from his point of view, is the absence of conflict, harmony of the social system, and the removal of social tension.

The idea of ​​"social equality" was opposed to the idea of ​​"social change" " Georg Simmel claimed that conflict in society is inevitable, that people have an inherent need for hostility, which turns out to be a specific form or basis of human relations, and the personality is not able to assert itself otherwise than through opposition. Based on these statements, conflict is understood not as a clash of ideas, but as an expression of hostility in relations between people. He says that along with sympathy there is a “natural hostility between man and man”, which is “the basis of human relations” (1994, p. 116). According to G. Simmel, there is constant struggle in the world, and often in its most destructive manifestations.

German sociologist Ralph Dahrendorf, developing the ideas of G. Simmel, defines social conflict as “any relationship of elements that is characterized by objective (“hidden”) or subjective (“explicit”) opposites. A conflict is called social if it can be derived from the structure of social units, that is, if it is not individual (1974). R. Dahrendorf believed that conflicts have always been and will be inherent in any society due to the inevitable differences in interests that arise from the contradictions that arise in society.

Simmel's ideas found successful implementation in the theory of positive functional conflict, developed by an American scientist L. Koze-rom. Criticizing Parsons' approach, he notes that conflicts are a product of internal changes in society, the result of the interaction of various elements of the social system. Conflict, in his opinion, does not impede stability.

L. Coser contrasted the idea of ​​“social equality” with the idea of ​​dynamic social changes, replete with conflicts. The conflict arises due to the desire of individual members of society or groups to increase their share of the reward.

L. Coser defines social conflict as a struggle over values ​​or claims to status, power or limited resources. In this struggle, the goals of the conflicting parties are not only to achieve what they want, but also to neutralize, damage or eliminate the opponent. The success of L. Kozer, according to N.V. Grishina, is not in his attempts to contrast the theory of conflict with structural functionalism, but to “inscribe” the conflict into the ideas of social order (2000, p. 29). It recognizes conflict as an inherent characteristic of social relations.

Social-psychological approach.

There are 2 theoretical approaches: motivational and situational.

Within motivational approach consideration of the conflict occurs as a “competitive type of interaction, which consists in the implementation of different directions of the value-motivational orientations of the subjects through their opposition and the formation of a negative attitude towards each other. . Social interaction not only can be initiated by various motives - it can generate new ones and extinguish old ones.

Interesting attempts to collect a general descriptive model of conflict within the framework of social psychology were made by A.A. Ershov (1973), L.A. Petrovskaya (1977), B.I. Khasan (1996), N.V. Grishina (2000), N. I.Leonov (2002). These works served as a good basis for the development of a typology of strategies and element-by-element analysis of formal models of conflict situations.

Research by V.A. Sosnin (1979), T.A. Polozova (1980), N.I. Frygina (1980), A.I. Dontsov (1984), A.Ya. Antsupov (2001) allowed domestic applied psychologists to carry out a significant number of practice-oriented developments.

A major contribution to the study of interpersonal conflicts was made by M. Deutsch. His theory describes conflict as consequence of an objective conflict of interests. He distinguishes two types of interaction: competition and cooperation. Conflict, according to M. Deutsch, is competitive interaction, because achieving the goals of one party interferes with the achievement of the goals of the other party. Rivalry causes the use of threat and cunning tactics; restriction of communication; minimizing awareness of similarities in values ​​and increasing sensitivity to opposing interests, etc. Cooperation, on the contrary, is the most effective type of interaction. It is distinguished by: openness in communication, increased sensitivity of participants to similarities and common interests, increased desire to help others, etc.

Conflict, according to M. Deutsch, can be constructive or destructive.

The conflict is constructive, if its participants are satisfied with the result of the conflict. The constructive function of conflict is that it promotes personal and social movement forward; in the process of conflict, the source of disagreement is objectified and its resolution is possible; conflict can lead to the formation of new relationships and contribute to increased group cohesion.

Signs destructive conflict are: expansion and escalation, i.e. the conflict becomes independent of the original causes, and if the causes are eliminated, the conflict continues. In general, M. Deutsch sees the productive development of the conflict in the joint efforts of the parties to solve the problem and compares it with solving creative problems.

The theory of intergroup conflict was formulated in more detail by D. Campbell: a real conflict of interests between groups determines the relationship of competition and expects a real threat from the other group. A real threat determines: the hostility of individual group members towards the source of the threat; increasing intra-group solidarity; full awareness by the individual of his group membership; increasing permeability of group membership boundaries; reducing the degree of deviation of individuals from fulfilling group norms; increasing penalties for violating these norms, up to expulsion of the violator from the group (1979).

So, within the framework of the motivational concept, basic ideas about the functions, typology of conflict, and methods of its regulation were formulated.

Along with the motivational approach to the study of conflicts, situational approach - as a concept that states that the optimal resolution of a conflict is a function of environmental factors in the organization itself (internal variables) and in the environment (external variables).

This approach, which focuses on the study of interaction situations, has received its greatest expression in the field of studying intergroup conflicts in the works M. Sheriff. The researcher saw the problems of intergroup conflict in the factors of the situation of direct interaction between groups. In accordance with this, he built an experiment, artificially creating situations of competition and cooperation. In his theory, M. Sheriff put forward a position on the causality of intergroup conflicts (1967).

This approach to the study of conflicts was implemented, first of all, in the behavioral tradition, which placed emphasis on the external determinants of their occurrence.

The subject of study of situational approaches in the study of conflicts was externally observable conflicts and their behavioral parameters. Within the framework of situational concepts, conflict is a form of reaction to an external situation.

Proponents of the situational approach focus on the aspect of the discrepancy between the goals and means of activity and existing conditions. Therefore, within the framework of the situational approach, it becomes possible to discuss the problem of changing and modifying activities, adjusting them to existing conditions.

K. Terhuneconcludes that if the situation is simple and does not contain a threat, personality variables play a large role; in complex and stressful situations situational factors prevail (1980).

K. Levin derived conflicts not from the internal processes of the psyche itself, but from the analysis of problems arising in the life situation of an individual. The value of K. Lewin's conflict theory lies in the fact that he connects intrapersonal conflict and behavior.

Situational factors are of decisive importance for the emergence of interpersonal conflicts. In a competitive situation, for example, being in a competitive relationship with a partner, or simply facing his competitive behavior, a person faces the need to respond. He will respond by choosing a competitive or cooperative response (or avoiding interaction) mainly depending on various factors of the situation (nature of the problem, partner, etc.) that can be observed and described.

The situational style of interaction between teacher and student, according to Abramova G.S., is characterized by three varieties:

Situational manifests itself in the fact that the student is perceived by the teacher as a means of solving pedagogical task. Style: “do what I do.”

Operational style characterized by the principle “do it the same way as I do”, i.e. teaches the child to structure his activities taking into account the conditions of action.

Value style relationships in general view can be expressed as “man is the measure of everything.” This is the justification of actions not only from the position of their objective structure, but also from the position of interdependence in terms of human activity (1988).

Within the framework of management processes, S.I. Erina’s research on the study of the role conflict of a manager of a primary production group is interesting. Role conflict is understood by her as a state of psychological conflict that develops in an individual in the course of performing social role in conditions of conflicting or partially incompatible requirements and expectations for role performance. Moreover, the term “social expectations” refers to a system of expected patterns of behavior corresponding to each role performed, through which the group controls the activities of its members (2000).

The beginning of a revision of the uniquely destructive function of conflict and, therefore, the discovery of the need to consider this phenomenon from a different psychological perspective can be associated with the works of M. Follett (1942), and then A. Filley (1979), N.V. Grishina (1983), A.I.Dontsova (1984), A.-N.Perret-Clermont (1986), D.Dena (1994), B.I.Khasana (1996), A.Ya.Antsupova (2001), N.I. Leonova (2002).

The applied significance of developments in conflict problems is clearly expressed in two areas:

I) methodological equipment for researchers and teachers;

2) correction in practical situations, socio-psychological training focused on the development of special skills.

HISTORY OF DOMESTIC CONFLICTOLOGY

In Russia, conflictology as a science emerged only in the last decade of the twentieth century. There are several stages of its formation:

Istage - conXIX– until 1924

The origin and development of conflictological ideas as practical knowledge of principles, rules, and methods of behavior in conflicts. The conflict is studied within the framework of philosophy, art history, philology, law, military sciences, psychology, but is not singled out as an independent phenomenon.

IIstage – 1924-1972

The origin and development of private conflict sciences. The conflict has been identified as an independent phenomenon in jurisprudence and sociology. This is caused by:

The degree of activity of society

Addiction humanities from the political situation in the country

Connections with world science, the opportunity to study research in the world.

The first publication on the topic “Conflict” in Russia was in 1924, its authors P.O. Griffin and M.I. Mogilevsky, “Sociology of labor conflict.”

The second stage includes 4 substages:

1924-1935 – Covers the first wave of publications. Works appear on the problem of conflict in law, sociology, psychology, and mathematics.

1935-1949 – Characterized by an almost complete absence of publications (repression and WWII).

1949-1972 – Conflict as an independent phenomenon begins to be studied in philosophy, pedagogy, history, political sciences. First 25 protected master's theses, works on conflict issues are published annually.

1972-1992 - At least 35 works on conflict issues are published annually, the first doctoral dissertations are defended (3 in art history, 1 each in mathematics, pedagogy, law, psychology, political science, philosophy = a total of 9 doctors of science in the country by 1992)

IIIstage - 1992 - present.

The first interdisciplinary research appears, conflictology begins to emerge as an independent science, and centers for conflict research are created. The annual number of publications reaches 350. From 2 to 10 doctoral and from 19 to 98 candidate dissertations are defended.

Today, 16 domestic sciences are studying conflicts:

The leaders among sciences studying conflicts today are

1st place –psychology

2 place- Sociology

3 place– political science.

As an independent science, conflictology has existed in Russia since the 90s of the twentieth century. The first Conflict Center opened in St. Petersburg in 1994 (Grishina N.V.).

Today, conflict issues are in great demand in society. Interest in practical issues of conflict management prevails, and the most promising in science is an interdisciplinary approach to the study of conflicts.

Types of conflicts (classification).

A short review of the literature shows that at the moment researchers identify hierarchical units of conflicts (types, types, levels, classes), but there are no

a unified approach to the typology and classification of conflicts,

work to identify the methodological basis for classifying conflicts from the point of view of conflict management

It can also be recorded that researchers have formed the idea that a unified approach to the classification of conflicts is impossible. The same conflict refers to either a type or a type. Therefore, it is difficult to begin diagnosing a conflict in the absence of a holistic view of the conflict and classifying it as a certain type, type, class, etc

Conflicts, as nodal points in which diverse processes of human life are intertwined, can be described and systematized into hierarchical structures that record stable signs of similarities and differences between conflicts

That is, the analysis of a conflict begins not with identifying causes, interests, forms of conflict interaction, etc., but with classifying the conflict as one or another type and class of conflict

The problem of creating typologies of conflict is always associated with the choice of basis, based on which the identification of similarities and differences in the properties and characteristics of the conflict is carried out.

The practical value of typologization lies in the fact that methods of regulating a conflict situation directly depend on the type of conflict and the type of person (group) involved in the conflict.

Conflict is a very complex phenomenon that has psychological, economic, social, moral, legal, organizational and other manifestations, which is why the choice of a single universal basis seems very difficult.

If we approach the creation of classifications of conflicts based on high level generalizations, then a universal basis can become systemic classification of conflict (according to Grishina).

1. By spheres of manifestation.

economic,

social,

political,

ethnic,

production,

family and household

organizational,

psychological,

moral, etc.

2. By subject

1. Intrapersonal conflict.

2. Interpersonal conflict.

3. Intergroup conflict.

4. Conflict “person-group (team)”.

3. Ratioin the conflict between subject and object.

Business conflict (that is, its cause is objective).

Emotional conflict (it is based on the subject, for example, usually complex interpersonal relationships and other implicit subjective factors).

Practice shows that many conflicts begin as business ones, but if they last a long time and are not resolved on a fair basis, they inevitably turn into emotional ones. When resolving such conflicts with the help of psychological influences, opponents must be returned to their “original state”, and the conflict itself must be returned to its business basis.

4. Durationconflict.

Short-term conflicts.

Protracted conflicts.

5. By the nature of the consequences of conflicts.

Constructive (creative)

Destructive (destructive)

6. According to the peculiarities of the development of the conflict.

Natural conflicts arise as a result of an emotional response to existing contradictions.

Planned conflicts arise as a result of calculating the situation, analyzing the characteristics of opponents, their reserves, when it is believed that it is the conflict in its specific manifestation that can eliminate the existing acute contradiction.

7. According to age periodization.

In this case, conflicts that are very characteristic of different age groups are studied (in a preschool environment, among schoolchildren of younger, middle and older ages, etc.).

Types of conflicts according to M.M. Kashapov.

Target conflict occurs when there is a mismatch between the goals of the participants in the interaction. This is a struggle to achieve a goal.

Information conflict is inevitable when the opposing sides do not have the same knowledge and ideas, and there is a difference in the interpretation of information.

Operational conflict associated with divergent and contradictory (not congruent) means of interaction.

Motivational conflict characterized by the incompatibility of people's intentions and interests. Different motives require directly opposite actions for their implementation.

Direct conflict - face-to-face conflict, communication where each participant comes into contact with the other(s), using all means of communication, and where immediate feedback is possible.

Indirect conflict - a conflict carried out with the participation of either third parties or using postal services, technical means, things, etc.

Status conflict - fight for priority. In a status conflict, various motives are necessarily present.

Classification according to S.M. Emelyanov

Classification according to –A.I. Shipilov

Resource conflict – arises due to the presence of one resource, which is claimed by several entities.

Status-role conflict - essentially a struggle for power and influence, challenging status in a group, role in interpersonal relationships.

Conflict of ideas, norms and principles - these are conflicts of spiritual beliefs caused by divergence of meaning and life orientations.

Main directions of development of Western conflictology

1.1. Modern conflictology: object, subject, tasks, methods

Sources of conflictological knowledge are:

· Philosophical views of thinkers of ancient and medieval times.

· Approaches to the problem of conflict within the framework of world religious teachings.

· Understanding the problem of conflict in literature, music and other forms of art.

· Accumulation in human practice of life experience in pre-conflict and conflict situations.

Object Conflictology is about conflicts in general.

Subject Conflictology is the general patterns of the emergence, development and completion of conflicts, as well as the principles, methods and techniques of managing them.

Based on the object and subject of science, we can formulate a definition of conflictology.

Conflictology is the science of the patterns of occurrence, development, and completion of conflicts, as well as the principles, methods and techniques of their constructive regulation.

Functions conflictology:

· educational a function within which the knowledge of the essence of social conflict is realized, its own conceptual system is built, and the possibilities of obtaining information and its analysis are developed;

· prognostic the function allows you to formulate, based on existing ideas, scientifically based forecasts about trends in the development of social contradictions and probable changes related to the management of social conflicts;

· practical the function ensures the use of developed forms and methods of conflict management for conflict interaction management;

· educational the function expands ideas about social conflict, its management and the possibilities of social interaction in resolving emerging contradictions.

The efforts of conflictology are concentrated today on solving the following theoretical tasks:

1. identifying the essence of conflicts;

2. establishing the main forms of conflicts, the uniqueness of each of them;

3. definition of the most effective methods regulation of conflict situations, as well as ways to prevent conflicts;

4. creation of a system of conflict management education in the country, promotion of conflict management knowledge in society.

The study of conflict is based on scientific principles of inquiry. As the most important principles ensuring obtaining significant results modern science, the following are recognized:

(1) principle of determinism, establishing the conditionality of all phenomena by the action of certain causes, i.e. the principle of cause-and-effect relationships of all phenomena of reality;

(2) principle of consistency, requiring the interpretation of all phenomena as internally related components whole system, natural, social, mental;

(3) development principle, i.e. recognition of continuous change, transformation and development of all objects and phenomena of reality, their transition from one form and level to another.

The main methods for collecting data in conflictology are:

1. Structural-functional method - identifies the main elements of conflict interaction and the role of each of them. Phenomena are considered in a static state.

2. Procedural - dynamic - determines the main stages, stages of conflict development, complements the structural-functional method.

3. Typologization (classification of conflicts) – provides grouping and classification of forms of conflict.

4. Forecasting – foreseeing the possibility of conflict, possible future conflict.

The permissive method is a special method of conflict management, which forms:

· basic strategies and tactics for resolving conflicts;

· conflict avoidance strategy;

· strategy for suppressing conflict by force, etc.

Particular methods in conflict management include: observation; introspection; oral and written survey; survey; testing; business games, etc.

Concept, object and subject of conflictology

Conflictology is the science of the patterns of emergence of contradictions and conflicts, the dynamics and forms of development of conflict situations, and methods of preventing, resolving and managing conflicts.

There are many definitions of the concept “conflictology”. For example, some researchers consider conflictology in a broad sense as a science that studies the entire body of heterogeneous, multi-scale and multi-level knowledge about conflicts and contradictions in all their manifestations - zoo conflicts, conflicts in the animal world, etc.

Below we will consider mainly social and socio-psychological conflicts that arise at the levels of the individual, group, organization, and large social communities. All of them are, to one degree or another, covered by the concept of “social conflicts”. Such conflicts are one of the types of social interaction. They are based on various social problems.

Social ( social relations, social sphere) arises in the process of interaction between people regarding the satisfaction of their vital needs (food, clothing, housing, safety, procreation, etc.) spiritual development, creativity, etc.). As a result of such interaction (repeated repetition of certain joint actions), social statuses and roles, values ​​and norms are developed, social institutions are formed, the social system of a society or social community is formed.

Social interaction presupposes coordination and mutual complementarity of joint activities. Therefore, the most important components of the social are the reciprocity of expectations and predictability of behavior of an individual, group, or social community. However, meeting the needs of some social actors may make it difficult (limit) meeting the needs of others. Therefore, in the process of interaction, various kinds of contradictions and conflicts (intentional or accidental inconsistency in interaction) may arise, which become the subject of research in social conflictology.

The object of research is a certain reality that does not depend on the knowing subject. Moreover, the same object can be studied by different sciences. For example, a conflict can become the object of study in such sciences as psychology, social psychology, sociology, political science, ethnology, etc.

The object of study of general (social) conflictology is social conflict as special shape social interaction (counteraction) of social subjects.

The subject of research is what the research is directly aimed at, it is a certain property, quality of the object, etc. If the object, as already mentioned, does not depend on the cognizing subject, then the subject is selected depending on the goals and objectives of the study of a specific science (specific research).

The subject of the study of conflictology as a scientific branch of knowledge is the general patterns of the emergence of conflict contradictions and conflicts, the dynamics and forms of development of conflict situations, methods of preventing, resolving and managing conflicts.