Examples of scientific hypotheses. How to write a hypothesis in the introduction of a thesis

Lyudmila Kazarina
Purpose of the hypothesis in the study

Species hypotheses:

1) According to hierarchical importance: General Auxiliary

2) By breadth of use: Universal Private

3) According to the degree of validity: Primary Secondary.

Requirements for hypotheses:

1. Purposefulness – providing an explanation of all the facts characterizing the problem being solved.

2. Relevance - reliance on facts, ensuring the admissibility of recognition hypotheses, both in science and in practice.

3. Predictiveness – providing prediction of results research.

4. Verifiability – allows the fundamental possibility of verification hypotheses, empirically, based on observation or experiment. This should provide or deny hypothesis or confirmation.

5. Consistency – achieved by the logical consistency of all structural components hypotheses.

6. Compatibility – ensuring connection between retractable assumptions with existing scientific, theoretical and practical knowledge.

7. Potentiality - includes possibilities of use hypotheses by the quantity and quality of the conclusions and consequences made.

8. Simplicity – based on consistency and large number contained in hypothesis initial premises for obtaining conclusions and consequences, as well as on a sufficiently large number of facts explained by it.

Formation and development hypotheses includes:

1) Preparatory stage

2) Formative stage

3) Experimental stage

After development hypotheses concept is being formed research is a system of fundamental views, ideas and principles research, i.e. his general plan (idea).

GOAL, OBJECTIVES AND RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

Target research- this is the scientific result that should be obtained as a result of everything research.

It should be noted that the goal research some scientists recommend placing after the problem research, i.e. in front of the object and subject, and some – after the object and subject. Here the choice is up to the supervisor.

It is usually recommended to begin the formulation of the goal with a perfective verb in indefinite form : identify, justify, develop, determine etc. etc. For example, if the topic research –“Control of the level of student achievements in the developmental education system”, then the goal can be formulated as follows way: “Identify and theoretically substantiate the features of monitoring the level of student achievement as a component of developmental education.”

After object definitions, the subject and purpose of the research, its hypothesis is put forward. A hypothesis is an assumption, put forward to explain a phenomenon that has not been confirmed or refuted. A hypothesis is a proposed solution to a problem.. She defines the main direction of scientific research and is the main methodological tool organizing the entire process research.

Towards scientific the hypothesis is presented the next two main requirements:

- hypothesis should not contain concepts that are not specified;

It must be verifiable using available techniques.

Formulating hypothesis, the researcher must make an assumption about, how, under what conditions the problem research and the set goal will be successfully achieved.

What does it mean to check hypothesis? This means checking the consequences that logically follow from it. As a result of the check hypothesis confirm or deny.

Hypothesis must be put forward in research, suggesting pedagogical experiment aimed at confirming hypotheses. IN research in the history of pedagogy hypothesis, as a rule, not provided.

Let's give an example of the formulation hypotheses on the topic: “Control as a component of the developmental system will ensure the development of schoolchildren, If:

Stimulates and promotes unity in achieving educational, educational and developmental learning goals;

Unity takes into account the process and result of the activity;

- defines dynamics of student advancement;

Promotes self-development of students.

Formulated goal and research hypothesis determines the research objectives, i.e. tasks follow not only from the goal, but also hypotheses. Tasks research is what research activities , which must be completed to achieve the goal set in the work, solve a problem or to verify the formulated research hypotheses. As a rule, there are three groups of tasks that are related With:

1) identifying the essential features and criteria of the phenomenon or process being studied;

2) justification of ways to solve the problem;

3) formulating the leading conditions of support effective solution problems.

Sequence of problem solving research determines its structure, i.e., each problem must find its solution in one of the paragraphs of the work. In the process of developing a task system, it is necessary define, which of them require primarily studying the literature, which require modernization, generalization or combination of existing approaches and, finally, which of them are problematic and need to be solved specifically in this research.

For example, as tasks research can be formulated following:

1) based on the analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature, highlight the conceptual and categorical apparatus research and systematize the data given by scientists definitions of these concepts;

2) identify the main approaches and points of view of scientists to solving the problem posed (or the state of development of the problem posed in the literature being studied);

3) study the state of solving the problem posed in teaching practice (to study the experience of teachers in solving the problem).

Is. assumes conducting an experiment, then to the listed tasks add:

1) develop an organizational and pedagogical system (or didactic model, or methodology) formation. ;

2) experimentally test its effectiveness.

Objectives must be interrelated and must reflect the overall path to achieving the goal. Unified requirements and algorithms for formulating tasks research does not exist. It is possible to outline only general guidelines for their definitions.

One of the tasks may be related to the characteristic subject of research, with identification of the essence of the problem, theoretical justification of ways to solve it. Let us give several examples of possible formulation of the first tasks:

Conduct analysis theoretical approaches on the problem...;

Analyze the psychological literature on the problem...;

Reveal and specify the essence of the concept “….”.

The second task is aimed at revealing common methods solving a problem, to analyze the conditions for its solution. For example:

Carry out diagnostics...;

Explore the features...

Identify the relationship...;

Develop a program aimed at...

IN research one must distinguish between goal and result. As noted, the goal is that suggest receive when conducting research. And the result is what we actually got. The question of how we got this is answered by the methodology. Methodology research explains, on which subjects, using what methods, under what conditions this result was achieved.

Research hypothesis

Solution scientific problem never begins directly with an experiment. This procedure precedes very important stage related to promotion hypotheses. `` Scientific a hypothesis is a statement containing assumption regarding the decision facing problem researcher. Essentially hypothesis- This main idea solutions. possible errors in the wording hypotheses the following should be adhered to approaches:

1. Hypothesis must be formulated in clear, literate language appropriate subject of research. The need for strict compliance with this requirement is due to the fact that sports science is a complex discipline. Therefore, there are frequent attempts to in the study of certain objects, put forward hypotheses in the language of science, having as the subject of research is completely different. For example, teachers, studying the performance of athletes and ways to increase it, often try to find the answer to the question posed in the biomechanical mechanisms of this phenomenon. However hypothesis that that the performance of an athlete, say a cyclist, depends on certain combination of aerobic and anaerobic energy supply mechanisms looks at least incorrect, since the pedagogical phenomenon is discussed in the language of biology. Moreover, biochemists themselves do not yet know a reliable answer to this question.

2. Hypothesis must either be justified previous knowledge, follow from them or, in the case of complete independence, at least not contradict them. A scientific idea, if it is true, does not appear out of nowhere. No wonder one of the aphorisms attributed to I. Newton sounds So: ``He saw far only because he stood on his mighty shoulders predecessors"". This emphasizes the continuity of generations in scientific activity. This requirement is easily fulfilled if, after a clear statement of the problem researcher will seriously study the literature on the issue that interests him. In general, it should be noted that reading for future use is not very effective. Only when the problem has taken over everyone's thoughts researcher, one can expect benefits from working with literature, and hypothesis will not be divorced from already accumulated knowledge. Most often this happens when patterns found in one sport or group of sports are transferred to everything else. This is done hypothetical assumption based on the principle of analogy.

3. Hypothesis can perform functions of protecting others hypotheses in the face of new experienced and old knowledge. For example, in the theory and methodology of physical education, it is believed that the physical training of athletes includes several sections, determined tasks of improving basic physical qualities such as speed, strength, endurance, flexibility and agility. In this regard, it was put forward hypothesis that that the level of sports results in sports with the manifestation of certain physical qualities depend on the level of their development in a particular athlete. Thus, the results in cyclic forms (long distances) determine the level of endurance of the athlete, the strength indicator in the barbell, etc.

4. Hypothesis must be formulated so that the truth put forward in it assumptions were not obvious. For example, from those conducted by individual authors research and practical experience it is known that primary school age (seven years) favorable for the development of coordination abilities. That., assumption that, that “pedagogical influences aimed at developing these abilities give the greatest effect if they are purposefully applied precisely at this age,” can serve as a general hypothesis when conducting research related to the development of methods for developing coordination abilities. At work hypothesis, it is advisable to determine those provisions, which may raise doubts, need proof and protection. Therefore the working hypothesis in a separate case it may look like this way: ``Supposed that the use of a standard training program based on the principles of health training will qualitatively increase the level of coordination abilities of seven-year-old children" - it is in this case that the effectiveness of the developed methodology researcher.

Ultimately, hypothesis precedes both solving the problem as a whole and each task separately. The hypothesis is refined during the research process, supplemented or changed.

Hypotheses differ from ordinary guesses and topic assumptions that they are adopted based on an analysis of available reliable information and compliance certain scientific criteria.

IN general view the hypothesis can be considered: as part of a scientific theory;

as scientific assumption, requiring subsequent experimental verification.

A hypothesis is a statement about some really existing phenomenon that can be tested experimentally. This is the assumption that one phenomenon under study has one or another influence on another, so that certain changes occur. Simply put, this is a statement that if you change one variable, then, as a consequence, another variable will change. Hypothesis is widely used in both natural and social scientific fields. It is a tool that helps to explore the phenomena of the surrounding world in order to understand them more deeply. Regardless of whether you start scientific activity or doing a school assignment, if you understand what a hypothesis is, you can come up with them yourself. The material provided in this article will help you try your hand at writing a hypothesis.

Steps

Part 1

How to prepare to write a hypothesis

Select the necessary literature. Find as much information as possible on the topic that interests you. Your task is to research your chosen topic as deeply as possible in order to really understand this issue.

Research primarily academic and scientific works. Use only reliable and objective data that helps to comprehensively consider the issue you have chosen.
You can use textbooks, research scientific literature in the library or on the Internet. If you are in school, get help from teachers, librarians, or classmates.

Study the collected materials. Having collected necessary information, spend enough time to study it. Try to pay attention and write down those questions that have not yet been answered. These are the questions that can inspire you to do more in-depth research.
- Let's say that while researching how caffeine affects the human body, you discover that no one has previously studied whether it affects men and women equally. In this case, you can put forward a hypothesis yourself. If you are researching a topic organic farming, then you can, for example, pay attention to the fact that no one has previously conducted research on the topic “How organic fertilizers affect plant growth rates in comparison with chemical fertilizers.”
- When reading the literature, pay attention to statements like “unknown” or questions that are clearly not sufficiently covered.
- By doing in-depth study of such issues, you can find out something really important that others have missed.
Raise certain issues. After reviewing the literature on the topic, raise one or more unanswered questions that you would be interested in exploring further. This will be the subject of your research.
- Looking back at the examples above, you might wonder, “Does caffeine have the same effects on both men and women?” or “Do organic and chemical fertilizers have different effects on plant growth?” Now your task is to find answers to the questions raised.
Look for guiding information to help you answer these questions. Once you have chosen a research question, find out whether theories or experimental data have already been developed on this topic. Based on this information, you too can find the answer to the question raised. This will help form the basis for your hypothesis.
- Following on from the examples above, if you find that other types of stimulants have a greater effect on women than men, this may be a clue that the same is true for caffeine. Likewise, if you find that when using organic fertilizers small plants grow, it is easy to guess that these fertilizers clearly do not promote growth.
Part 2
How to make a hypothesis
1. Determine what your variables are. A hypothesis must establish a possible relationship between two variables: the independent and the dependent.
  
  Come up with a general hypothesis. Once you have thought enough about your research topic and variables, write down your first thoughts about how the variables might be related. This should be a simple declarative statement.
  - At this stage there is no need to formulate thoughts precisely or in detail.
  - In the examples given, one hypothesis might state that caffeine has different effects depending on a person's gender. That is, the general hypothesis would be: “Caffeine has different effects on men and women.” Another hypothesis would be a general assumption about the relationship between plant growth and the type of fertilizer. General hypothesis: “Plant growth rate depends on the type of fertilizer used.”
2. Choose a focus. Hypotheses can be directed or undirected. The non-directional hypothesis simply states that general outline about the influence of one variable on another. A directional hypothesis provides more information about the nature (or "direction") of the relationships, in particular how exactly one variable influences the other.

Hypothesis in theses acts as the most valuable methodological tool of the research being carried out. Thanks to hypothesis, scientific researchers discover new knowledge and ideas. Hypothesis represents an assumption that follows from a theory. The existence of such an assumption, indicated in the introduction of the thesis, has not yet been proven or experimentally refuted. The author only has to successfully discover its truth or prove its falsity throughout the entire research work.

Hypothesis acts as a statement that assumes the presence or existence of a relationship between several variables. A hypothesis is like a bridge built between actual facts and new, unknown ones, those whose existence still needs to be proven.

Hypothesis doesn't come out of nowhere. Its appearance is preceded by various guesses that do not constitute a hypothesis as such. A guess can be called a hypothesis if it includes a logical justification based on proven provisions.

It must be remembered that the wording hypotheses carried out on the basis of the problem being studied. A brilliantly formulated assumption meets such requirements as adequacy to the research question, absence of conflict between new and old knowledge, and accessibility to verification. In addition, the prediction must be correct and simple, and not be reduced to banal facts.

There are several stages of creation and further development hypotheses. The first of them is the identification of a certain group of facts that do not fit into long-known theories that need to be explained by a new assumption. The second is the direct formulation of a hypothesis designed to explain the discovered facts. The third is a deep study of the indicated prediction and the identification of all possible consequences from it. Fourth - comparison of the consequences of the hypothesis with existing ones scientific discoveries. Fifth - the formation of new scientific knowledge from a hypothesis if the consequences derived from it are confirmed and there are no contradictions with long-known postulates of science.

hypothesis can be verified either by active experiment or by detecting correlations between those quantities whose interrelation is of scientific interest.

Examples of thesis hypotheses

"Motivation of the activities of management employees."

Hypothesis: It should be expected that achieving the highest level of motivational area of management employees is closely related to the greatest success in their professional activities.

"Document flow in the organization."

Hypothesis: It is assumed that if measures are developed to improve the company’s document flow with its further implementation in the organization’s activities, the efficiency of the documentation support service of the entire enterprise as a whole will increase.

“Developing children's curiosity school age».

Hypothesis: Successful development of the curiosity of school-age children will become possible if joint activities of children and adults are competently organized on the basis of the latest educational developments.

"Web Development -website for the department of “Pedagogy and Psychology”.

Hypothesis: The interaction of the teaching staff of the department of “Pedagogy and Psychology” with university students will become most effective if we develop an original Web site of the department.

Hypothesis is an assumption put forward to explain a phenomenon that is neither confirmed nor refuted. A hypothesis is a proposed solution to a problem.

The hypothesis determines the main direction of scientific research. It is the main methodological tool that organizes the entire research process.

The following two main requirements are imposed on a scientific hypothesis:

a) the hypothesis should not contain concepts that are not specified;

b) it must be verifiable using available techniques.

What does it mean to test a hypothesis? This means checking the consequences that logically follow from it. As a result of testing, the hypothesis is confirmed or refuted.

Research objectives- these are those research actions that need to be performed to achieve the goal set in the work, solve a problem, or test the formulated research hypothesis.

Examples.

"Hypothesis. The effectiveness of solving psychodiagnostic problems is largely determined by the choice of diagnostic thinking strategy of psychologists.

To test the hypothesis, it was necessary to solve the following problems:

1. Based on a theoretical study of psychological and pedagogical literature, identify the main characteristics of a diagnostic search and formulate principles for modeling psychodiagnostic tasks.

2. Construct psychodiagnostic tasks that model learning difficulties.

3. Develop a laboratory methodology for studying the process of solving diagnostic problems, reproducing the logic of making a psychological diagnosis in real conditions.

4. Conduct pilot study features of solving diagnostic problems by practical psychologists and teachers."

Main hypotheses.

The hypothesis is that there are connections between personality statements, the representation of qualities in handwriting and the representation in physiognomy.

It is assumed that behind individual facial features there are qualities that are “read” by others.

Behind the designs of letters, behind their features, there are also signs of individual properties and personality traits by which one can judge a person.

Particular hypotheses.

There are areas where you can most accurately determine a person’s characteristics from handwriting.

There are areas where one can most accurately determine a person’s characteristics based on physiognomy.

There are areas that can be effectively identified by verbal characteristics.

To test the hypotheses, the following main tasks were solved:

Determine from literary sources the directions in which the problem of nonverbal characteristics was solved.

Conduct experiments to identify individual personality traits manifested in handwriting and physiognomy.

Identify the analyzed characteristics of individuals based on verbal indicators.

Identify the objective characteristics of persons with whom the obtained data on verbal and nonverbal characteristics are associated.

5. Establish the most stable connections between verbal and non-verbal characteristics."

Research methodology.

In addition to the methodology, research should distinguish between purpose and result. As noted, the goal is what we want to get when conducting research, an image of the future. The result is what we really got, an image of the present. The methodology answers the question of how we got it, i.e. on what subjects, using what methods, under what conditions. In order for the description of the technique to be complete and at the same time not redundant, it is advisable to adhere to a certain scheme when describing it.

Scientific novelty.

As already noted, the purpose of the research is to obtain new knowledge for society. It should be noted that when it comes to coursework or thesis, this requirement remains, but is not so categorical. For these scientific works, the novelty of the results may be subjective and determined not in relation to society, but in relation to the researcher. In this case, the work performed may represent a simulation of solutions known in science. When it comes to a candidate's dissertation, the requirement to obtain new knowledge for society is mandatory.

What can constitute the novelty of a dissertation, diploma or course research? What cognitive situations are favorable for acquiring new knowledge?

Studying what is known to everyone at a level common sense phenomenon using special scientific methods and thereby turning it into a scientifically established fact.

For example, the phenomenon of Rosa Kuleshova and A.N. Leontiev’s experiment on the formation of nonspecific color sensitivity. The phenomenon of Rosa Kuleshova lies in the fact that, according to eyewitnesses, she could read printed text with her fingers. A.N. Leontyev decided to test this evidence experimentally.

The experimental procedure was as follows. The subject sat at a table on which there was a panel in the frontal plane. There was a cutout in the panel into which a cuff like a photo sleeve was mounted. The subject had to slide his arm into a cuff that did not allow light to pass through and place his arm on the table. On the table, under the subject’s palm, there was a round cutout through which the hand was random order rays of light were supplied - green or red. After the green light, nothing happened, and after the red light, the subject received an electric shock. The purpose of the experiment was to develop a conditioned reflex in the subject to an electric shock.

How did the experiment proceed? Thirty trials - the subject does not remove his hand. Forty samples - it doesn’t remove it. Fifty, sixty, eighty, one hundred and fifty, three hundred, five hundred trials - the subject still does not remove his hand. Conditioned reflex is not produced. The experiment was stopped.

After this they dial new group subjects and conduct the second series of the experiment. But unlike the first series, the subjects are introduced to the conditions of the experiment and told that green and red rays of light will be randomly applied to the palm of their hand and that after the green one nothing will happen, and after the red one they will receive an electric shock. Thus, unlike the first series, the subjects find themselves in a situation of actively searching for stimuli.

How does the experiment proceed in this case? At approximately the eightieth test, subjects begin to carefully remove their hand after the red beam, thereby avoiding electric shock. What does this mean?

This means that in a situation of active search, the skin of the hands tested learned to distinguish a nonspecific stimulus - light. It follows from this that the phenomenon of Rosa Kuleshova is not a skillfully staged trick, not subjective distortions and fantasies of eyewitnesses, but reality. Now this is a scientifically established fact that every researcher must reckon with.

Study of a phenomenon already known in science using new experimental material. In this case, new knowledge is obtained due to the characteristics of the experimental sample of subjects on which the study of the characteristics is carried out. For example, ethnic, sociocultural, professional, age. By carrying out research on a special sample, we obtain new data both in the case when the results obtained differ from those previously known when conducting research using this methodology, and when no differences in the data obtained compared to already known ones were found. The novelty in the latter case will lie in the fact that the previously known pattern also applies to a new sample of subjects.

The transition from a qualitative description of facts known in science to their precisely defined quantitative characteristics.

Studying what is known in science mental phenomenon more advanced methods. For example, The transition when measuring reaction time from one tenth to one hundredth of a second is favorable for obtaining new results.

comparison, comparative analysis the course of mental processes. For example, involuntary, voluntary attention, memory in normal and mentally ill people, volitional processes in drug addicts and alcoholics.

Changed conditions of the mental process.

For example, thinking in conditions of weightlessness and normal conditions.

Examples.

"The scientific novelty of this study is:

1. In an experimental study of the content of the process of solving psychodiagnostic problems. Previously, such studies concerned only the solution of diagnostic problems in medical and technical diagnostics.

2. In the study of the process of making a diagnosis based on computer modeling psychodiagnostic tasks.

3. In determining the main diagnostic search strategies that psychologists use in the process of solving diagnostic problems: a complete scheme, with one of the stages skipped, and a collapsed scheme.

4. In establishing the peculiarities of solving psychodiagnostic problems by psychologists and teachers.

5. In identifying the influence of experience in diagnostic work on the effectiveness of making a psychological diagnosis."

"The scientific novelty of the research is as follows:

1. A correspondence has been established between classes of emotional phenomena and the sphere of individual needs.

2. Criteria for constructing a diagnostic methodology for the state of the emotional sphere for children of the first and second periods of childhood have been identified.

3. The characteristics of the emotional sphere of children with different levels of creativity have been identified."

Practical significance

It is advisable to highlight two main areas of characterization of the practical significance of scientific research. The first is related to the data obtained in it, the second is related to the methodology used.

The practical significance of the research results may lie in the possibility of:

Solutions based on them for one or another practical problem;

· carrying out further scientific research;

· use of the obtained data in the preparation process
certain specialists.

Examples.

The practical significance of studying the dynamics of mental giftedness in primary and secondary school age lies in the fact that the results of the study can be used in practical work by psychologists and teachers to develop the intelligence and creative potential of children’s personalities.

The data obtained in the study on the characteristics of alcohol or drug addiction can be used in the corresponding special course.

As noted, another area of practical significance of the study is related to the methodology used in it. If a new technique has been developed in a study, then its practical significance may be due to the possibility of using it, again, to solve some practical problems, to conduct further research and to train specialists.

Examples.

Laboratory techniques for determining the propensity for unmotivated risk can be used to solve the practical problem of selecting specialists, professional activity which are associated with extreme conditions, for example, firefighters. The same technique can be used to conduct further research on the problem of volitional behavior. And finally this technique may find application in psychology workshops in the training of psychologists.

The practical significance of the study, which consists of the significance of its results and the methods used, should be distinguished from the practical significance of the research topic, which is indicated before the study and is revealed when characterizing the relevance.

Designing a scientific research apparatus requires considerable time and experience. To purchase it, it is advisable to take several abstracts master's theses and get acquainted with the first two or three pages, on which all the elements of the apparatus of scientific research are usually drawn up.

Conclusion

Knowledge is perfect reproduction in linguistic form generalized ideas about the natural connections of the objective world.

The specificity of scientific knowledge is determined by a multi-link structure, the elements of which are the phenomena being studied, sensory images, thoughts, proper, general and conceptual names, individual and universal statements. If we act in a rather crude dichotomous manner (dividing the whole into two parts), we come to a comparison of the individual and the general. The sphere of the individual is often called the factual; the sphere of the general is called the theoretical. Both the sphere of the individual (fact) and the sphere of the general (theory) are not monoliths, they are multidimensional and contain various components. Thus, a fact includes eventual, perceptual (sensual) and linguistic components. The theory contains existential, cognitive (mental) and linguistic components. At the same time, theory is the highest, most developed organization of scientific knowledge, which provides a holistic reflection of the laws of a certain sphere of reality and represents a symbolic model of this sphere. This model is constructed in such a way that some of its characteristics, which are of the most general nature, form its basis, while others are subject to basic rules or are derived from them. Therefore, by theory in the broad sense of the word we mean a system of reliable concepts, ideas, principles that explain any phenomena.

Human activity in any form (scientific, practical, etc.) is determined by a number of factors. Its final result depends not only on who acts (subject) or what it is aimed at (object), but also on how is being done this process, what methods, techniques, means are used.

List of used literature:

1. Baryshnikova E.L. Features of the emotional states of creative children: Author's abstract. dis. Ph.D. psychol. Sci. - M., 1999, p. 4.

2. Gerasimov I.G. Structure of scientific research. - M., 1985

3. Kostromina S.N. Study of the process of solving diagnostic problems by a practical psychologist: Author's abstract. dis. ...cand. psy-hol. Sci. - M, 1997, p. 2.

4. Kuznetsov I. N. Scientific works: methods of preparation and design. - Mn., 2000

5. Fundamentals of scientific research / Ed. V.I. Krutov., I.M. Grushko, V.V. Popov. - M.: Higher. school, 1989

6. Ruzavin G.I. Methodology of scientific research. - M., 1999

7. Sabitov V.A. Fundamentals of scientific research. Tutorial. - M., 2002

8. Sokova T.O. Peculiarities of personality persistence in alcohol and drug addiction: Abstract of thesis. dis. ...cand. psychol. Sci. - M., 1999, p. 2-3.

9. Strelsky V.I. Fundamentals of student research work. - Kyiv, 1981

Following the identification of a problem, there is a search for its solution, that is, the next phase of the thinking process unfolds - the problem-solving phase. As G. Hegel said in this regard, thought “must rise above the point of view of surprise in order to truly realize its object” [Hegel G.V. Essays. T. 3. M; L., 1956].

The answer to the problem posed is achieved through mental activity in the form of making guesses or hypotheses. New knowledge is first realized by the researcher in the form of a hypothesis, the latter being a necessary and culminating moment of the thinking process.

Therefore, one of the main basic skills of a researcher - the ability to put forward hypotheses and make assumptions. This process necessarily requires originality and flexibility of thinking, productivity, as well as such personal qualities like determination and courage. Hypotheses are born both as a result of logical reasoning and as a result of intuitive thinking.

The word hypothesis comes from the ancient Greek - hypothesis - basis, assumption, judgment about the natural connection of phenomena. Children often express a variety of hypotheses about what they see, hear, and feel. Many interesting hypotheses are born as a result of attempts to find answers to one’s own questions. Contains interesting observations on the hypothetical constructions of new words and speech patterns. book by K.I. Chukovsky "From two to five." Everyone who deals with young children constantly faces these hypothetical interpretations of the content of words, the process of creating their own words.

A hypothesis is a conjectural, probabilistic value that has not yet been proven logically or confirmed by experience. A hypothesis is a prediction of events. How larger number events can be foreseen by a hypothesis, the greater value it has. Initially, a hypothesis is neither true nor false - it is simply undefined. Once it is confirmed, it becomes a theory; if it is refuted, it also ceases to exist, turning from a hypothesis into a false assumption.

One of the main obvious requirements for a hypothesis is its consistency with factual material, therefore some “very serious” researchers are inclined to believe that not every assumption can be called a hypothesis. A hypothesis, they argue, in contrast to a simple assumption, must be justified, indicating the path of research. But for children's research aimed at development creativity child, important ability to develop hypotheses according to the principle “the more, the better.” Any, the most fantastic hypotheses and even “provocative ideas” are suitable for us. The hypothesis itself can become important factor, motivating the creative research potential of the child.

Putting forward hypotheses, assumptions and unconventional (provocative) ideas are important thinking skills that ensure research and, ultimately, progress in any creative activity. Let's take a brief look at how hypotheses are born; what they are like; how to build them; what exercises exist to develop the ability to put forward hypotheses.

How hypotheses are born

The first thing that makes a hypothesis is born, this is a problem. Where does the problem come from? We have largely discussed this issue above. In professional research work It usually happens like this: a scientist thinks, reads something, talks with colleagues, conducts preliminary experiments (in science they are usually called “pilot experiments”). As a result, he finds some kind of contradiction or something new and unusual. Moreover, most often this “unusual”, “unexpected” is found where others everything seems understandable and clear, that is, where others do not notice anything unusual. Knowledge begins with surprise at what is ordinary. The ancient Greeks spoke about this.

Methods for testing hypotheses are usually divided into two groups: “theoretical” and “empirical”. The first involves relying on logic and analysis of other theories (existing knowledge) within the framework of which this hypothesis is put forward. Empirical methods for testing hypotheses involve observation and experimentation.

So, hypotheses (or hypothesis) arise as possible options solving the problem. These hypotheses are then tested during the study. The construction of hypotheses is the basis of research, creative thinking. Hypotheses allow us to discover new possibilities, find new solutions to problems and then, through theoretical analysis, thought or real experiments, evaluate their likelihood. Thus, hypotheses give us the opportunity to see a problem in a different light, to look at the situation from a different perspective.

The value of assumptions, even the most ridiculous, provocative ideas, is that they force us to go beyond ordinary ideas, to plunge into the element of mental play, risk, to do something without which moving into the unknown is impossible.

You can specifically train in the ability to develop hypotheses. Here's a simple exercise: let's think together: how do birds find out the way to the south? Why do buds appear on trees in spring? Why does water flow? Why does the wind blow? Why do metal planes fly? Why is there day and night?...

What, for example, could be the hypotheses in this case: “birds determine the road by the sun and stars”, “birds see plants (trees, grass, etc.) from above: they show them the direction of flight”, “birds are led by those who have already flown to the south and knows the way”, “birds find warm air currents and fly along them.” “Or maybe they have an internal natural compass, almost like on an airplane or on a ship?”

There are also completely different, special, implausible hypotheses; they are usually called provocative ideas. In our case, this could be, for example, the following idea: “Birds definitely find their way to the south because they catch special signals from space.”

Hypotheses, assumptions, as well as various, provocative ideas allow us to pose real and thought experiments. In order to learn to develop hypotheses, you need to learn to ask questions. Under what conditions does this apply?

Let's give a few exercises to generate hypotheses and provocative ideas. First, note that when making assumptions, we usually use the following words:
May be;
suppose;
let's say;
Maybe;
what if...

Exercises on circumstances

1. Under what conditions will each of these items be very useful? Can you think of conditions under which two or more of these items would be useful?

tree branch;
telephone;
doll;
fruits;
racing car;
book;
samovar;
drum.
Very effective in terms of training the ability to put forward hypotheses reverse exercise. For example: under what conditions can these same objects be completely useless and even harmful?

Let's give some more several exercises:

1. Why do you think baby animals (bear cubs, tiger cubs, wolf cubs, fox cubs, etc.) love to play?

Why does snow melt in spring?
Why do some predatory animals hunt at night, while others hunt during the day?
Why are flowers so brightly colored?
Why doesn't the snow in the mountains melt in the summer?
Why do there be floods?
Why does it snow in winter and only rain in summer?
Why doesn't the Moon fall to Earth?
Why do rockets fly into space?
Why does a plane leave a trail in the sky?
Why do many children love computer games?
Why do earthquakes happen?
Offer several different hypotheses about these issues. Come up with some provocative ideas too.

2. Tasks like " Find possible reason events» can also help you learn to put forward hypotheses:

Children began to play more in the yards;
Misha played with the construction set all evening;
A firefighting helicopter circled the forest all day;
The police car stood alone by the road;
The bear did not fall asleep in winter, but wandered through the forest;
Friends quarreled.

3. Interesting task to train skills in developing hypotheses and provocative ideas, they are used in a number of schools for gifted people abroad. For example: “What would happen if a wizard granted the three most important wishes of every person on Earth?” (J. Freeman - England). Necessary come up with as many hypotheses and provocative ideas as possible, explaining what would happen as a result.

4. Birds fly low over the ground (“There is an open book on the table”; “The snow has begun to melt on the street”; “The trolleybus is honking under the window”; “Mom is angry”, etc.). Need to do about this the two most logical assumptions and come up with the two most logical explanations. The task will become more interesting if you also try to come up with two or three of the most fantastic and implausible explanations.

5. Imagine that sparrows have become the size of large eagles (“Elephants have become smaller than cats”, “People have become several times smaller (or larger) than now”, etc.). What will happen? Come up with some hypotheses and provocative ideas about this.

Teaching children to ask questions

It is important for any researcher to be able to ask questions. Children love to ask questions, and if they are not systematically weaned off this, they achieve high level in this art. To understand how to help develop this important component of research ability, let's take a quick look at theoretical aspects and methods of working with questions.

Logical structure of the question. In the process of research, as with any knowledge, the question plays a key role. We can say, and this will not be an exaggeration, that knowledge begins with a question. The terms: “problem”, “question”, “problem situation” denote non-identical, but closely related concepts. A question is usually seen as a form of expressing a problem, while a hypothesis is a way of solving a problem. The question directs the child’s thinking to search for an answer, thus awakening the need for knowledge, introducing him to mental work.

Any question, according to experts in the field of logic, one can conditionally divided into two parts - basic, initial information and an indication of its insufficiency.

What questions might there be?

Questions can be divided into two large groups:

1. Clarifying (direct “whether” questions). Is it true that... Should I create... Should I... Clarifying questions can be simple or complex. Complex questions are those that actually consist of several questions. Simple questions can be divided into two groups: conditional and unconditional. Let's give examples: “Is it true that there is a kitten living at home?” - a simple unconditional question. “Is it true that if a puppy refuses to eat and does not play, then he is sick?” - a simple conditional question.

There are also complex questions that can be broken down into several simple ones. For example: “Will you play computer games with the guys or do you prefer to play them alone”?

2. Filling (or vague, indirect “to” questions). They usually include the words: “where”, “when”, “who”, “what”, “why”, “which”, etc.

These questions may also be simple and complex.

For example: “Where can I build the house you drew?” - before us is a simple question aimed at filling in the missing knowledge.

“Who, when and where can build this house?” - an example of a complex question. As you can see, it can easily be divided into three independent questions.

In cognition it is necessary that questions precede answers. Stimulating the ability to ask questions is extremely important. When teaching children this skill, you can, in particular, introduce them to an interesting translation of a statement by the writer R. Kipling, made by A. Marshak. Kipling argued that we have an intelligent spirit. But he needs to ask questions. This is how wonderfully he talks about questions:

I have six servants,
Agile, daring,
And everything I see around me
I know everything from them.
They are at my call
Are in need
Their names are How and Why,
Who, What, When and Where.

A prerequisite or, as experts in the field of logic say, the basis of the question is background knowledge. They can be reflected in the question explicitly or implicitly. The incompleteness and uncertainty of this basic knowledge needs to be eliminated.

This is usually indicated by the words “who”, “what”, “when”, “why” and others similar to them. They are usually called question operators.

Questions may be correct and incorrect. The first are questions that rest on true judgments. Questions are called logically incorrect in cases where the questioner does not know that the basis of his question is false. If the questioner knows about this and still asks the question for the purpose of provocation, then the question is called provocative. Even in ancient times, philosophers called people who ask such questions “sophists,” and the very method of asking such questions was a sophistic device.

Various exercises are used to develop the ability to ask questions. For example, the famous American psychologist E.P. Torrance gave his students pictures with images of people, animals and suggested asking questions to the one depicted. Or try to answer the question of what questions the person shown in the picture might ask you.

Another task is “What questions will help you learn new things about the object lying on the table?” We place, for example, a toy car, a doll, etc. on the table.

Experience shows that exercises borrowed from a set of techniques can be successfully used for these purposes. laboratory work for students of pedagogical universities [Uruntaeva G.A., Afonkina Yu.A. Workshop on child psychology. M., 1995].

The child is given the following situation: “Imagine that an adult comes up to you stranger. What three questions would he ask you? Our experimental work has shown that preschoolers give a lot interesting information while completing this task. And at the same time they learn how to ask questions on behalf of another (in this case, an adult) person.

Here's another one interesting exercise. We will select and read short children's poems with a large number of different characters to the children. For example. Let's read a poem by G. Komarovsky and G. Ladonshchikov to the children:

I have a lot of friends
But I drew them all:
Kolya stabs,
Fields of flight,
Pasha is plowing,
Sonya is sleeping
Katya is rolling,
Tonya is drowning,
I won't let her drown!
I will save my friend Tonya:
I'll draw something!

Now the task: let's ask one question to each character in the poem.

In the science of logic it is highlighted many types and types of questions. These are questions of establishing similarities and differences; questions of establishing cause-and-effect relationships, etc. There is a group of questions that involve the action of choice based on weighing and comparison with each other various options. This material is too complex for primary school children, so let's look at simpler options.

These include, for example, questions that require selection from the baggage of a wide variety of knowledge of those only which are necessary in this situation. Basically, these are questions in which you need to confirm physical, chemical, biological, grammatical and other patterns with your own examples.

Can be used for training tasks that involve correcting someone’s mistakes: logical, stylistic, factual. Here is a funny children's dictionary containing a lot of errors that can be corrected during a special group lesson. This list is taken from the book by K.I. Chukovsky “From two to five”:

“Planing is what is used for planing.
A digger is something you use to dig with.
A hammer is something that is used to beat.
A chain is something that is used to cling.
Vertucia is something that rotates.
Lizyk is something that licks.
Mazelin is something that is smeared with.
Kusariki - what bites"
[Chukovsky K.I. From two to five. M., 1990. p. 30].

Another example, also containing questions with errors - fun task - “Questions and answers.” Reading to children:

Say everything back
Only “yes” and only “no”.
Does the moon have a hot light?
Is the cook making his own lunch?
Do trains rush across the sea?
But never by land?
Do I need to buy a movie ticket?
Does the moon have a cold light?

As an exercise for training the ability to ask questions, the task "find the mystery word." It can be carried out in different options. Here's the simplest one. Children ask each other different questions about the same subject, starting with the words “what?”, “how?”, “why?”, “why?”. Mandatory rule- there must be a connection in the question that is clearly invisible. For example, in questions about an orange it is not “What kind of fruit is this?”, but “What kind of object is this?”

More is possible difficult option. One one of the children thinks of a word. He keeps this word secret, but tells everyone only the first sound (letter). Let's say that this is "M". One of the participants asks a question, for example: “Is this what is in the house?”; "This item orange color?; “Is this item used for transporting goods?”; “Isn’t this an animal?” The child who thinks of the word answers “yes” or “no.” After this the questions continue. There is only one limitation - you cannot ask questions designed for direct guessing. For example, such as: “Isn’t that a mouse?” or “Is this a bridge?”

Game - “guess what they asked.” The student who comes to the board is given several cards with questions. He, without reading the question out loud and without showing what is written on the card, loudly answers for it. For example, the card says: “Do you like sports?” The child answers: “I love sports.” All other children need to guess what the question was.

Sample questions:

What color do foxes usually have?
Why do owls hunt at night?
Are there living creatures in nature that look like a dragon?
Why does an astronaut wear a spacesuit in space?
What do astronauts eat in space?
Why are commuter trains called “electric trains”?
What is a conveyor?
Why is the main square of the country called Red Square?

Before completing the task, you need to agree with the answering children so that they do not repeat the question when answering.

Find the reason for the event using questions. The teacher-psychologist offers the children a situation. For example: “The girl left the class before the end of the lesson. What do you think happened?” (“The children made two snowmen from the snow. One melted in a day, the second stood until the end of winter. Why do you think this happened?”; “Seryozha was preparing for the lesson, but when the teacher called him to the blackboard, he could not say not words. Why do you think?”; “The police helicopter flew over the Ring Road all day. Why do you think?”). It is better to complete the first task collectively, naming the questions out loud. Then it is best to write your questions in your notebooks. The task becomes more difficult if you ask children to reach the correct answer with a minimum number of questions.

Savenkov I.A.//Gifted child. 2003. No. 2. P.76-86.