North-Eastern Siberia. Eastern Siberia

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Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education vocational education"National Mineral Resources University "Mining"

Faculty of Secondary Vocational Education

(College of Geodesy and Cartography)

TEST

in Geography

Option No. 8

Completed:

1st year student PG-15z group

Full name Konyaev Artur Georgievich

Teacher: Dashicheva A.V.

St. Petersburg-2015

TASK 1: Biogenic landforms. Relief-forming activity of animals and plants.

TASK 2: North-Eastern Siberia of Russia, physical and geographical characteristics

Relief is a set of forms of the earth's surface, different in outline, size, origin, age and history of development. Relief influences the formation of climate, the nature and direction of river flows depend on it, and the distribution of flora and fauna is associated with it. Relief significantly influences human life and economic activity.

The importance of organisms in the life of the Earth is great and varied. The processes of changing the Earth's surface as a result of the activity of living organisms are called biogeomorphological, and the relief created with the participation of plants and animals is called biogenic. These are mainly nano-, micro- and mesoforms of relief.

A grandiose process, carried out largely thanks to organisms, is sedimentation (for example, limestones, caustobiolites and other rocks).

Plants and animals also participate in a complex universal process - weathering of rocks, both as a result of direct impact on rocks and through the products of their vital activity. It is not for nothing that biological weathering is sometimes distinguished along with physical and chemical weathering.

Plants and animals have a significant impact on various natural processes, such as erosion. Destruction of vegetation on steep slopes, trampling of plants by animals (the so-called “slaughterhouse paths”), loosening of soil by burrowing animals - all this increases erosion. This is especially dangerous on mountain slopes, where transhumance is carried out. There, due to excessive grazing load, various large-scale slope processes often come to life, the results of which are felt even in the foothills. Grassing the slopes (sowing meadow perennial long-rhizome grasses) consolidates the soil and reduces erosion.

Abundant aquatic vegetation in rivers, as well as the inhabitants of reservoirs, influence channel processes. Beaver dams change the hydrological regime of rivers and geomorphological processes in the river bed. Due to the damming of rivers, swampy, muddy floodplains are formed in areas above beaver dams.

Vegetation contributes to the overgrowing of lakes, filling them with organic matter. As a result, leveled, hummocky swamp surfaces appear in place of lake basins. Peat mounds are very typical in the tundra.

Plants and animals actively participate in the creation of some types of accumulative shores. In equatorial-tropical latitudes, mangrove shores are formed, growing towards the sea due to the death of plant mass. In temperate latitudes, similar reed shores appear along the shores of seas and lakes.

On the coasts of the seas, shell beaches are created from animal shells with the participation of wave activity. Accumulative landforms such as coral structures are also widely known: coastal, barrier (for example, the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Australia), ring atolls, of which there are many in the Pacific and Indian oceans.

Digging animals also contribute to the formation of biogenic relief. As a result of earth emissions, they create molehills, marmots, baybachins - mounds up to a meter high. Termite hills reach up to 4-5 m in height with a diameter of 15-20 m and create a peculiar small-hilly relief in Australian and African savannas.

Animals and plants perform destructive work, which often manifests itself in a much more diverse and complex manner than the similar activities of various agents of inanimate nature (wind, water, etc.).

The accumulative activity of animals and plants causes a wide variety of positive relief forms. You can, for example, point out hummocks, which are ejections of soil from burrows. However, the largest positive relief forms are formed due to the accumulation of plant residues in the form of peat. On the surface of raised bogs there are often ridges composed of peat. Together with the depressions (hollows) separating them, they create a kind of ridge-hollow surface of the swamps. The height of the ridges above the surface of the hollows ranges from 15 to 30 cm and rarely reaches 50-70 cm.

As a result of the vital activity of animals and plants, various shapes relief, which can be divided into the following main groups:

landforms caused by their destructive activities;

relief forms caused by their accumulative activity.

North-Eastern Siberia is located in the extreme northeast of Eurasia at the junction of three lithospheric plates- Eurasian, North American and Pacific, which determined the extremely complex terrain of the territory. In addition, over the course of a long geological history, cardinal rearrangements of tecto- and morphogenesis have repeatedly occurred here.

If we accept that the territory of North-Eastern Siberia corresponds to the Late Mesozoic Verkhoyansk-Chukotka fold-cover region, then its boundaries are: in the west - the Lena valley and the lower reaches of the Aldan, from where, crossing Dzhugdzhur, the border reaches the Sea of Okhotsk; in the southeast the border runs along the lowland from the mouth of the Anadyr to the mouth of the Penzhina; in the north - the North Sea Arctic Ocean; in the south and east - the Pacific Ocean. Some geographers do not include the Pacific coast in North-Eastern Siberia, drawing the border along the watershed of the rivers of the Arctic and Pacific oceans.

In the Precambrian and Paleozoic, middle massifs appeared in this territory in the form of separate microcontinents (Kolyma-Omolon, etc.), which during the Mesozoic folding were woven into the lace of folded mountains. At the end of the Mesozoic, the territory experienced peneplanation. At this time, there was an even, warm climate with coniferous-deciduous forests, and North American flora penetrated here overland in the Bering Strait. During the Alpine folding, Mesozoic structures were split into separate blocks, some of which rose and others subsided. The middle massifs rose entirely, and where they split, lava came out. At the same time, the shelf of the Arctic Ocean sank and the relief of North-Eastern Siberia took on the appearance of an amphitheater. Its highest steps go along the western, southern and eastern borders of the territory (Verkhoyansk Range, Suntar-Khayata and Kolyma Highlands). A step lower are numerous plateaus on the site of the middle massifs (Yanskoye, Elginskoye, Yukagirskoye, etc.) and the Chersky ridge with the highest point of North-Eastern Siberia - Mount Pobeda (3003 m). The lowest level is the swampy Yana-Indigirskaya and Kolyma lowlands.

Arctic desert zone.

Tundra zone.

Taiga zone.

The Arctic desert is part of the Arctic geographical zone, the Arctic Ocean basin. This is the northernmost of the natural zones and is characterized by an arctic climate. The spaces are covered with glaciers, rubble and fragments of stones.

Has low temperatures air in winter up to?60°C, on average?30°C in January and +3°C in July. It is formed not only due to the low temperatures of high latitudes, but also due to the reflection of heat (albedo) during daylight hours from snow and under a crust of ice. The annual amount of precipitation is up to 400 mm. In winter, the soil is saturated with layers of snow and barely thawed ice, the level of which is 75-300 mm. [source not specified 76 days]

The climate in the Arctic is very harsh. Ice and snow cover lasts almost the entire year. In winter there is a long polar night (at 75°N - 98 days; at 80°N - 127 days; in the pole area - six months). This is a very harsh time of year. The temperature drops to?40 °C and below, strong hurricane winds blow, and snowstorms are frequent. In summer there is round-the-clock lighting, but there is little heat, the soil does not have time to completely thaw. The air temperature is slightly above 0 °C. The sky is often overcast with gray clouds, it rains (often with snow), and thick fogs form due to the strong evaporation of water from the surface of the ocean.

Flora and fauna

The Arctic desert is practically devoid of vegetation: there are no shrubs, lichens and mosses do not form a continuous cover. The soils are thin, with a patchy (island) distribution mainly only under vegetation, which consists mainly of sedges, some grasses, lichens and mosses. Extremely slow vegetation recovery. The fauna is predominantly marine: walrus, seal, and in the summer there are bird colonies. The terrestrial fauna is poor: arctic fox, polar bear, lemming.

Tumndra is a type of natural zones lying beyond the northern limits of forest vegetation, spaces with permafrost soil that is not flooded by sea or river waters. The tundra is located north of the taiga zone. The nature of the surface of the tundra is swampy, peaty, rocky. The southern border of the tundra is taken to be the beginning of the Arctic. From the north, the tundra is limited by the arctic desert zone. Sometimes the term “tundra” is applied to similar natural areas of Antarctica.

Tundra in Alaska in July

The tundra has a very harsh climate (the climate is subarctic); only those plants and animals live here that can withstand cold and strong winds. Large fauna is quite rare in the tundra.

Winter in the tundra is extremely long. Since most of the tundra is located above the Arctic Circle, the tundra experiences the polar night in winter. The severity of winter depends on the continental climate.

The tundra, as a rule, is deprived of climatic summer (or it comes for a very short period of time). The average temperature of the warmest month (July or August) in the tundra is 5-10 °C. With the arrival of summer, all vegetation comes to life as the polar day approaches (or white nights in those areas of the tundra where the polar day does not occur).

May and September are the spring and autumn of the tundra. It is in May that the snow cover disappears, and usually sets in again at the beginning of October.

In winter the average temperature is up to?30 °C

There may be 8-9 winter months in the tundra.

Animal and plant life

Tundra vegetation consists primarily of lichens and mosses; common angiosperms - low grasses (especially from the Poaceae family), shrubs and shrubs (for example, some dwarf species birch and willow, princely berry bushes, blueberries).

Typical inhabitants of the Russian tundra are reindeer, foxes, bighorn sheep, wolves, lemmings and brown hares. There are a few birds: Lapland plantain, white-winged plover, red-breasted pipit, plover, snow bunting, snowy owl and ptarmigan.

Rivers and lakes are rich in fish (nelma, whitefish, omul, vendace and others).

The swampiness of the tundra allows the development of a large number of blood-sucking insects, active in summer period. Due to the cold summer, there are practically no reptiles in the tundra: low temperatures limit the ability of cold-blooded animals to live

Taiga is a biome characterized by the predominance of coniferous forests (boreal species of spruce, fir, larch, pine, including pine).

Pinega forest.

Taiga is characterized by the absence or weak development of undergrowth (since there is little light in the forest), as well as the monotony of the grass-shrub layer and moss cover (green mosses). Species of shrubs (juniper, honeysuckle, currant, etc.), shrubs (blueberries, lingonberries, etc.) and herbs (oxalis, wintergreen) are few in both Eurasia and North America.

In northern Europe (Finland, Sweden, Norway, Russia) predominate spruce forests, in North America (Canada) - spruce forests with an admixture of Canadian larch. The taiga of the Urals is characterized by light coniferous forests of Scots pine. Siberia and the Far East are dominated by sparse larch taiga with an undergrowth of dwarf cedar, Daurian rhododendron, and more.

The fauna of the taiga is richer and more diverse than fauna tundra Numerous and widespread: lynx, wolverine, chipmunk, sable, squirrel, etc. Among the ungulates there are reindeer, red deer, elk, and roe deer; Hares, shrews, and rodents are numerous: mice, voles, squirrels and flying squirrels. Common birds include: capercaillie, hazel grouse, nutcracker, crossbills, etc. For taiga North America American species of the same genera as in Eurasia are typical.

In the taiga forest, compared to the forest-tundra, conditions for animal life are more favorable. There are more sedentary animals here. Nowhere in the world, except for the taiga, are there so many fur-bearing animals.

IN winter period The overwhelming number of species of invertebrates, all amphibians and reptiles, as well as some species of mammals plunge into suspended animation and hibernation, and the activity of a number of other animals decreases.

Types of taiga

Based on the species composition, there is a distinction between light coniferous taiga (Scots pine, some American pine species, Siberian and Daurian larch) and the more typical and widespread dark coniferous taiga (spruce, fir, cedar pine, Korean cedar). Tree species can form pure (spruce, larch) and mixed (spruce-fir) stands.

The soil is usually soddy-podzolic. Humidity is sufficient. 1-6% humus.

Evaporation 545 mm, precipitation 550 mm, average temperature in July 17°-20 °C, in winter the average January temperature in the west is 6 °C, and in the east 13 °C

The territory of North-Eastern Siberia has a sharply continental climate. Almost all of North-East Siberia lies within the Arctic and subarctic climatic zones. The average temperature is below?10°.

North-Eastern Siberia can be divided into 3 climatic zones.

Hydrography

North-Eastern Siberia is dissected by a network of many rivers flowing to the Laptev and East Siberian seas. The largest ones on them - Yana, Indigirka and Kolyma - flow almost in a meridional direction from south to north. Cutting through mountain ranges in narrow deep valleys and receiving numerous tributaries here, they, already in the form of high-water streams, reach the northern lowlands, where they acquire the character of lowland rivers.

Most rivers are fed primarily by early summer snowmelt and summer rains. Groundwater, melting snow and glaciers in high mountains, as well as ice play a certain role in feeding rivers. More than 70% of the annual river flow occurs in three calendar summer months.

The largest river in North-Eastern Siberia - Kolyma (basin area - 643 thousand km2, length - 2129 km) - begins in the Upper Kolyma Highlands. Somewhat below the mouth of the Korkodon River, Kolyma enters the Kolyma Lowland; its valley here sharply expands, the fall and speed of the flow decrease, and the river gradually acquires a flat appearance. Near Nizhnekolymsk, the width of the river reaches 2-3 km, and the average annual flow is 3900 m3/sec (flow is about 123 km3 of water).

The sources of the second large river - the Indigirka (length - 1980 km, basin area - 360 thousand km2) - are located in the Oymyakon Plateau area. Crossing the Chersky ridge, it flows in a deep and narrow valley with almost vertical slopes; In the riverbed of the Indigirka there are often rapids. Then the river enters the plain of the Central Indigirskaya Lowland, where it breaks into branches separated by sandy islands. Below the village of Chokurdakh, a delta begins with an area of 7,700 km2. Indigirka has a yearly flow of over 57 km3 (average annual flow - 1800 m3/sec).

The western regions of the country are drained by the Yana (length - 1490 km2, basin area - 238 thousand km2). Its sources - the Dulgalakh and Sartang rivers - flow from the northern slope of the Verkhoyansk Range. After their confluence within the Yana Plateau, the river flows in a wide valley with well-developed terraces. In the middle part of the current, where the Yana crosses the spurs of mountain ranges, its valley narrows, and rapids appear in the riverbed. The lower reaches of the Yana are located in the coastal lowlands; When it flows into the Laptev Sea, the river forms a large delta (with an area of about 5200 km2).

The Yana River is characterized by long summer floods, which is caused by the gradual melting of snow cover in the mountainous regions of its basin and the abundance of summer rains. The highest water levels are observed in July and August. The average annual flow is 1000 m3/sec, and the annual flow is over 31 km3.

Most of the lakes in North-Eastern Siberia are located on the northern plains, in the Indigirka and Alazeya basins. There are places here where the area of lakes is not less area land separating them. The abundance of lakes, of which there are several tens of thousands, is due to the shallow terrain of the lowlands, difficult drainage conditions, and the widespread occurrence of permafrost. Most often, lakes occupy thermokarst basins or depressions in floodplains and on river islands. They are all different small in size, flat shores, shallow depths (up to 4-7 m). For seven to eight months, the lakes are covered with a thick ice cover; many of them freeze to the bottom in the middle of winter.

In the territory of North-Eastern Siberia there is: gold, tin, polymetals, tungsten, mercury, molybdenum, antimony, cobalt, arsenic, coal.

Unlike other parts of Siberia, the amount of high-quality wood here is relatively small.

relief siberia russia

Literature

1. Lyubushkina S.G. General Geography: Textbook. a manual for university students studying specialties. "Geography" / S.G. Lyubushkina, K.V. Pashkang, A.V. Chernov; Ed. A.V. Chernova. - M.: Education, 2004. - 288 p.

2. Gvozdetsky N. A., Mikhailov N. I. Physical geography of the USSR. Asian part. - 3rd ed., rev. and additional Textbook for students of geography. fak. univ. - M.: “Mysl”, 1978. 512 p.

3. Davydova M.I., Rakovskaya E.M. Physical geography of the USSR. - M.: Education, 1990.- 304 p.

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Geographical description

Eastern and occupy almost two-thirds of the territory of Russia. Situated on a plateau. The eastern zone covers an area of about 7.2 million square meters. km. Her possessions extend all the way to the Sayan mountain ranges. Most of the territory is represented by tundra lowland. The mountains of Transbaikalia play a significant role in the formation of the relief.

Despite the harsh climatic conditions, there are quite a lot of large cities in Eastern Siberia. The most attractive from an economic point of view are Norilsk, Irkutsk, Chita, Achinsk, Yakutsk, Ulan-Ude, etc. Within the zone are the Trans-Baikal and Krasnoyarsk territories, the republics of Yakutia, Buryatia, Tuva and other administrative regions.

The main type of vegetation is taiga. It stretches from Mongolia to the borders of the forest-tundra. Occupies more than 5 million square meters. km. Most of the taiga is represented by coniferous forests, which make up 70% of the local vegetation. Soils develop unevenly relative to natural zones. In the taiga zone the soil is favorable and stable, in the tundra it is rocky and frozen.

Within the interfluve and lowlands, minor swamps are observed. However, there are much fewer of them than in Western Siberia. But in the eastern region there are often arctic deserts and deciduous plantations.

Relief characteristics

Eastern Siberia of Russia is located on high level over the sea. The plateau, which is located in the middle part of the zone, is to blame. Here the height of the platform varies from 500 to 700 meters above sea level. The relative averaging of the region is noted. The highest points are considered to be the interfluve of the Lena and the Vilyui plateau - up to 1700 meters.

The base of the Siberian platform is represented by a crystalline folded basement, on which there are huge sedimentary layers up to 12 kilometers thick. The north of the zone is determined by the Aldan shield and the Anabar massif. The average thickness of the soil is about 30 kilometers.

Today, the Siberian platform contains several main types of rocks. This includes marble, crystalline slate, charnockite, etc. The oldest deposits date back to 4 billion years. Igneous rocks are formed as a result of eruptions. Most of these deposits are found in the Tunguska depression.

The modern relief is a combination of lowlands and hills. Rivers flow in the valleys, swamps form, and they grow better at higher elevations. coniferous trees.

Features of the water area

It is generally accepted that the Far East faces the Arctic Ocean with its “façade”. The eastern region borders on the Kara, Siberian and Laptev seas. Of the largest lakes, it is worth highlighting Baikal, Lamu, Taimyr, Pyasino and Khantayskoye.

Rivers flow in deep valleys. The most significant of them are the Yenisei, Vilyui, Lena, Angara, Selenga, Kolyma, Olekma, Indigirka, Aldan, Lower Tunguska, Vitim, Yana and Khatanga. The total length of the rivers is about 1 million km. Most of the region's internal basin belongs to the Arctic Ocean. Other external water areas include rivers such as Ingoda, Argun, Shilka and Onon.

The main source of nutrition for the inland basin of Eastern Siberia is snow cover, which melts in large quantities under the influence of sunlight from the beginning of summer. The next most important role in the formation of continental waters is played by rain and groundwater. The highest level of basin flow is observed in summer.

The largest and most important river in the region is the Kolyma. Its water area occupies more than 640 thousand square meters. km. The length is about 2.1 thousand km. The river originates in the Upper Kolyma Highlands. The annual water consumption exceeds 120 cubic meters. km.

Eastern Siberia: climate

The formation of meteorological features of a region is determined by its territorial location. The climate of Eastern Siberia can be briefly described as continental, consistently harsh. There are significant seasonal fluctuations in cloudiness, temperature, and precipitation levels. The Asian anticyclone forms vast areas of high pressure in the region, this phenomenon is especially found in winter time. On the other hand, severe frost makes air circulation changeable. Because of this, temperature fluctuations at different times of the day are more significant than in the west.

The climate of North-Eastern Siberia is represented by variable air masses. It is characterized by increased precipitation and dense snow cover. This area is dominated by continental flows, which rapidly cool in the surface layer. That is why in January the temperature drops to a minimum. Arctic winds predominate at this time of year. Often in winter you can observe air temperatures down to -60 degrees. Basically, such minimums are characteristic of basins and valleys. On the plateau, the indicators do not drop below -38 degrees.

Warming is observed with the arrival of air flows from China and Central Asia into the region.

winter time

It is not without reason that it is believed that Eastern Siberia has the heaviest and most severe conditions. The table of temperature indicators in winter is proof of this (see below). These indicators are presented as average values over the last 5 years.

Due to the increased dryness of the air, the constancy of the weather and the abundance of sunny days, such low levels are more easily tolerated than in a humid climate. One of the defining meteorological characteristics of winter in Eastern Siberia is the absence of wind. Most of the season there is moderate calm, so there are practically no blizzards or blizzards here.

It is interesting that in the central part of Russia a frost of -15 degrees is felt much stronger than in Siberia -35 C. Nevertheless, such low temperatures significantly worsen living and activity conditions local residents. All living areas have thickened walls. Expensive fuel boilers are used to heat buildings. The weather begins to improve only with the onset of March.

Warm seasons

In fact, spring in this region is short, as it arrives late. The eastern one changes only with the arrival of warm Asian air currents, and begins to wake up only by mid-April. It is then that stability of positive temperatures is observed in daytime. Warming begins in March, but it is insignificant. By the end of April the weather begins to change for the better. In May, the snow cover completely melts and the vegetation blooms.

In the summer in the south of the region the weather becomes relatively hot. This is especially true steppe zone Tuva, Khakassia and Transbaikalia. In July the temperature here rises to +25 degrees. The highest rates are observed on flat terrain. It is still cool in the valleys and highlands. If we take the whole of Eastern Siberia, then the average summer temperature here is from +12 to +18 degrees.

Climate features in autumn

Already at the end of August, the first frosts begin to envelop the Far East. They are observed mainly in the northern part of the region at night. During the day the bright sun shines, there are rains with sleet, and sometimes the wind increases. It is worth noting that the transition to winter occurs much faster than from spring to summer. In the taiga, this period takes about 50 days, and in the steppe area - up to 2.5 months. All this characteristic features, which distinguishes Eastern Siberia from other northern zones.

The climate in autumn is also represented by an abundance of rain coming from the west. Humid Pacific winds most often blow from the east.

Precipitation level

The relief is responsible for atmospheric circulation in Eastern Siberia. Both the pressure and the speed of air mass flow depend on it. The region receives about 700 mm of precipitation annually. The maximum indicator for the reporting period is 1000 mm, the minimum is 130 mm. The level of precipitation is not clearly defined.

On the plateau in middle lane It rains more often. Due to this, the amount of precipitation sometimes exceeds 1000 mm. The driest region is considered to be Yakutia. Here the amount of precipitation varies within 200 mm. Least it's raining in the period from February to March - up to 20 mm. The western regions of Transbaikalia are considered optimal zones for vegetation relative to precipitation.

Permafrost

Today there is no place in the world that can compete in terms of continentality and meteorological anomalies with the region called Eastern Siberia. The climate in some areas is striking in its severity. In the immediate vicinity of the Arctic Circle lies a permafrost zone.

This area is characterized by light snow cover and low temperatures throughout the year. Because of this, mountain weather and soil lose a huge amount of heat, freezing to depths of meters. The soil here is predominantly rocky. Groundwater are underdeveloped and often freeze for decades.

Vegetation of the region

The nature of Eastern Siberia is mostly represented by taiga. Such vegetation extends for hundreds of kilometers from the Lena River to Kolyma. In the south, the taiga borders on the local property, untouched by man. However, due to the arid climate, the threat of large-scale fires always hangs over them. In winter, the temperature in the taiga drops to -40 degrees, but in summer the readings often rise to +20. Precipitation is moderate.

The nature of Eastern Siberia is also represented by the tundra zone. This zone is adjacent to the Arctic Ocean. The soils here are bare, the temperature is low, and the humidity is excessive. In mountainous areas, flowers such as cotton grass, grass grass, poppy, and saxifrage grow. Trees in the region include spruce, willow, poplar, birch, and pine.

Animal world

Almost all regions of Eastern Siberia are not distinguished by the richness of their fauna. The reasons for this are permafrost, lack of food and underdeveloped deciduous flora.

The largest animals are brown bear, lynx, elk and wolverine. Sometimes you can see foxes, ferrets, stoats, badgers and weasels. The central zone is home to musk deer, sable, deer and bighorn sheep.

Due to the perpetually frozen soil, only a few species of rodents are found here: squirrels, chipmunks, flying squirrels, beavers, marmots, etc. But the feathered world is extremely diverse: wood grouse, crossbill, hazel grouse, goose, crow, woodpecker, duck, nutcracker, sandpiper, etc. .

Eastern Siberia occupies a vast territory from the Yenisei to the Pacific Ocean. It is famous for its large number of natural resources and minerals. The features of the relief and this region made it so valuable in terms of raw materials. The mineral resources of Eastern Siberia are not only oil, coal and iron ores. A significant part of Russia's gold and diamonds, as well as valuable metals, is mined here. In addition, this region contains almost half of the country's forest resources.

Eastern Siberia

Minerals are not the only feature of this region. Eastern Siberia covers an area of more than 7 million square kilometers, which is about a quarter of all of Russia. It extends from the valley of the Yenisei River to the very mountain ranges on the Pacific coast. To the north, the region borders the Arctic Ocean, and to the south, Mongolia and China.

Not many regions belong to Eastern Siberia and settlements, as in the European part of Russia, because this area is considered sparsely populated. Here are the largest regions in the country, the Chita and Irkutsk regions, as well as the Krasnoyarsk and Transbaikal regions. In addition, Eastern Siberia includes the autonomous republics of Yakutia, Tuva and Buryatia.

Eastern Siberia: relief and minerals

The diversity of the geological structure of this region explains such a wealth of its raw materials. Due to their huge number, many deposits have not even been explored. What mineral resources is Eastern Siberia rich in? This is not only coal, oil and iron ores. In the depths of the region lie rich reserves of nickel, lead, tin, aluminum and other metals, as well as sedimentary rocks necessary for industry. In addition, Eastern Siberia is the main supplier of gold and diamonds.

This can be explained by the features of the relief and geological structure of this region. Eastern Siberia is located on the ancient Siberian Platform. And most of the region’s territory is occupied by the Central Siberian Plateau, elevated above sea level from 500 to 1700 m. The foundation of this platform is the oldest crystalline rocks, the age of which reaches 4 million years. The next layer is sedimentary. It alternates with igneous rocks formed as a result of volcanic eruptions. Therefore, the relief of Eastern Siberia is folded and stepped. It contains many mountain ranges, plateaus, terraces, and deep river valleys.

Such a variety of geological processes, tectonic shifts, sedimentation of sedimentary and igneous rocks led to the wealth of mineral resources in Eastern Siberia. The table shows that more resources are mined here than in neighboring regions.

Coal reserves

Thanks to geological processes since the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras, Russia's largest coal deposits of Western and Eastern Siberia are located in the lowlands of the region. These are the Lena and Tunguska basins. There are also a lot of smaller deposits. And although they contain less coal, they are also promising. These are the Kama-Achinsky and Kolyma-Indigirsky basins, the Irkutsk, Minusinsk, and South Yakutsk fields.

Coal reserves in Eastern Siberia account for 80% of all coal mined in Russia. But many places where it occurs are very difficult to develop due to the harsh climatic conditions region and terrain features.

Iron and copper ores

The main minerals of Eastern Siberia are metals. Their deposits are found in the most ancient rocks, dating back to the Precambrian period. Most of the region has hematites and magnetites. Their deposits are located in the south of the Yakut region, in the basin on the Angara, in Khakassia, Tuva and Transbaikalia.

The largest ore deposits are Korshunovskoye and Abakanskoye. There are also many of them in the Angaro-Pitsky region. 10% of all Russian iron ore reserves are concentrated here. In Transbaikalia and in the north of the region there are also large deposits of tin and valuable metals.

The surrounding area of Norilsk is famous for its large deposits of copper-nickel ores. Almost 40% of Russian copper and about 80% of nickel are mined here. In addition, there is a lot of cobalt, there are also platinum, silver, tellurium, selenium and other elements. Copper, mercury, manganese, and antimony are mined in other places. There are large deposits of bauxite.

Non-metallic minerals

Our country is the world's largest supplier natural gas, a lot of oil is produced here. And the first supplier of these minerals is the deposits of Eastern Siberia. In addition, geological processes have led to the emergence of rich deposits of sedimentary rocks.

Gold and diamonds of Eastern Siberia

Most valuable metal It has been mined here for almost the second century. The oldest deposit is Bodaibo in Irkutsk region. There are rich placer and bedrock deposits of gold in the Aldan, Yan, and Allah-Yun regions. Deposits have recently begun to be developed in the area of the Yenisei Ridge, near Minussinsk and in the east of Transbaikalia.

Thanks to special geological processes that took place in this region back in the Mesozoic era, many diamonds are now mined here. The largest deposit in Russia is located in Western Yakutia. They are mined from so-called diatremes filled with kimberlites. Each of these “explosion tubes” in which diamonds are found even got its own name. The most famous are “Udachnaya-Vostochnaya”, “Mir” and “Aikhal”.

Natural resources

The region's complex terrain and vast undeveloped territories covered with taiga forests provide a wealth of natural resources. Due to the fact that the deepest rivers in Russia flow here, the region is provided with cheap and environmentally friendly hydroelectric power. The rivers are rich in fish, the surrounding forests are rich in fur-bearing animals, of which sable is especially valued. But due to the fact that people are increasingly interfering with nature, many species of plants and animals are becoming extinct. Therefore, many reserves and national parks have recently been created in the region to preserve natural wealth.

Richest areas

Eastern Siberia occupies almost a quarter of Russia's territory. But not many people live here. In some places there are more than 100 square kilometers per person. But Eastern Siberia is very rich in minerals and natural resources. Although they are unevenly distributed throughout the region.

The richest in economically is the Yenisei basin. Krasnoyarsk is located here, where more than half of the total population of Eastern Siberia is concentrated. The wealth of this area in minerals, natural and hydro resources led to the active development of industry.
The wealth located in the upper reaches of the Angara River began to be used only in the 20th century. A very large polymetallic deposit was discovered here. And the reserves of iron ore are simply huge. The best magnesite in Russia is mined here, as well as a lot of antimony, bauxite, nepheline, and shale. Deposits of clay, sand, talc and limestone are being developed.
Evenkia has the richest resources. Here in the Tunguska basin there are such minerals of Eastern Siberia as stone and high-quality graphite is mined in the Noginskoye deposit. Iceland spar deposits are also being mined.
Khakassia is another richest region. A quarter of East Siberian coal and all iron ore are mined here. After all, the Abakan mine, located in Khakassia, is the largest and oldest in the region. There is gold, copper, and a lot of building materials.
One of the richest places in the country is Transbaikalia. Mainly metals are mined here. For example, it supplies copper ores, Ononskoye - tungsten, Sherlokogonskoye and Tarbaldzheyskoye - tin, and Shakhtaminskoye and Zhrikenskoye - molybdenum. In addition, a lot of gold is mined in Transbaikalia.
Yakutia is a treasure trove of mineral resources in Eastern Siberia. Although only after the revolution, deposits of rock salt, coal and iron ore began to be developed. There are rich deposits of non-ferrous metals and mica. In addition, it is in Yakutia that the richest reserves of gold and diamonds have been discovered.

Problems of mineral development

The vast, often unexplored territories of the region lead to the fact that many of its natural resources not mastered. There is a very low population density here, which is why the promising mineral deposits of Eastern Siberia are mainly developed in populated areas. After all, the lack of roads over a large area and the enormous distance from the center contribute to the fact that the development of deposits in remote regions is unprofitable. In addition, most of Eastern Siberia is located in the permafrost zone. And the sharply continental climate prevents the development of natural resources in the rest of the territory.

Northeastern Siberia and Far East

Due to the terrain and climatic conditions, mineral resources in North-Eastern Siberia are not so rich. There are few forests here, mostly tundra and arctic deserts. Most of the territory is dominated by perpetual merlot and year-round low temperatures. Therefore, the mineral resources of North-Eastern Siberia are not very well developed. Mainly coal is mined here, as well as metals - tungsten, cobalt, tin, mercury, molybdenum and gold.

The easternmost and northern regions of Siberia are classified as the Far East. This area is also rich, but also more populated due to its proximity to the ocean and milder climate. Minerals of Eastern Siberia and Far East are similar in many ways. There are also a lot of diamonds, gold, tungsten and other non-ferrous metals; mercury, sulfur, graphite, and mica are mined. This region contains rich deposits of oil, coal and natural gas.

General characteristics of North-Eastern Siberia

To the east of the lower reaches of the Lena lies a vast territory, bounded on the east by the mountain ranges of the Pacific watershed. This physical-geographical country was named North-Eastern Siberia. Including the islands of the Arctic Ocean, North-Eastern Siberia covers an area of more than $1.5 million sq. km. Within its borders are the eastern part of Yakutia and the western part of the Magadan region. North-Eastern Siberia is located in high latitudes and is washed by the waters of the Arctic Ocean and its seas.

Cape Svyatoy Nos is the extreme northern point. The southern regions are located in the Mai River basin. Almost half of the country’s territory is located north of the Arctic Circle, which is characterized by varied and contrasting topography. There are mountain ranges, plateaus, and flat lowlands along the valleys of large rivers. North-Eastern Siberia belongs to the Verkhoyansk-Chukchi Mesozoic folding, when the main folding processes took place. The modern relief was formed as a result of recent tectonic movements.

The climatic conditions of North-Eastern Siberia are severe, January frosts reach -$60$, -$68$ degrees. Summer temperature+$30$, +$36$ degrees. The temperature range in some places is $100$-$105$ degrees, there is little precipitation, about $100$-$150$ mm. Permafrost binds the soil to a depth of several hundred meters. In flat areas, the distribution of soils and vegetation is well expressed by zonality - on the islands there is a zone of arctic deserts, continental tundra and monotonous swampy larch woodlands. Altitudinal zonation is typical for mountainous regions.

Note 1

Explorers I. Rebrov, I. Erastov, M. Stadukhin brought the first information about the nature of North-Eastern Siberia. It was the middle of the 17th century. The Northern Islands were studied by A.A. Bunge and E.V. Toll, but the information was far from complete. Only in the $30$ years of the expedition of S.V. Obruchev changed ideas about the features of this physical and geographical country.

Despite the diversity of the relief, North-Eastern Siberia is mainly a mountainous country; lowlands occupy $20$% of the area. Here are located mountain systems marginal ridges of the Verkhoyansk, Chersky, Kolyma Highlands. In the south of North-Eastern Siberia there are the most high mountains, the average height of which reaches $1500$-$2000$ m. Many peaks of the Verkhoyansk ridge and the Chersky ridge rise above $2300$-$2800$ m. The peak is located in the Ulakhan-Chistai ridge - this is Mount Pobeda, whose height is $3147$ m.

Geological structure of North-East Siberia

In the Paleozoic era and at the beginning of the Mesozoic era, the territory of North-Eastern Siberia belonged to the Verkhoyansk-Chukotka geosynclinal sea basin. The main evidence of this is the thick Paleozoic-Mesozoic deposits, reaching $20-$22 thousand meters in places, and strong tectonic movements, which created folded structures in the second half of the Mesozoic. The most ancient structural elements include the middle Kolyma and Omolon massifs. The remaining tectonic elements have a younger age - Upper Jurassic in the west, and Cretaceous in the east.

These elements include:

Verkhoyansk folded zone and Sette – Daban atiklinorium;
Yana and Indigirka-Kolyma synclinal zones;
Tas-Khayakhtakh and Momsky anticlinoriums.

By the end of the Cretaceous period, North-Eastern Siberia was a territory elevated above neighboring regions. The warm climate of this time and the denudation processes of mountain ranges leveled the relief and formed flat leveling surfaces. The modern mountainous relief was formed under the influence of tectonic uplifts in the Neogene and Quaternary periods. The amplitude of these uplifts reached $1000$-$2000$ m. Particularly high ridges rose in those areas where the uplifts were most intense. Cenozoic depressions are occupied by lowlands and intermountain basins with layers of loose sediments.

Around the middle of the Quaternary period, glaciation began, and large valley glaciers appeared on mountain ranges that continued to rise. According to D.M., glaciation had an embryonic character. Kolosov, on the plains, firn fields were formed here. The formation of permafrost begins in the second half of the Quaternary period in the archipelago of the New Siberian Islands and in the coastal lowlands. The thickness of permafrost and subsoil ice reaches $50$-$60$ m in the cliffs of the Arctic Ocean.

Note 2

The glaciation of the plains of North-Eastern Siberia was thus passive. A significant part of the glaciers were inactive formations that carried little loose material. The exaration effect of these glaciers had little effect on the relief.

Mountain-valley glaciation is better expressed; on the outskirts of mountain ranges there are well-preserved forms of glacial gouging - cirques, trough valleys. Mid-Quaternary valley glaciers reached a length of $200$-$300$ km. The mountains of North-Eastern Siberia, according to most experts, experienced three independent glaciations in the Middle Quaternary and Upper Quaternary times.

These include:

Tobychan glaciation;
Elga glaciation;
Bokhapcha glaciation.

The first glaciation led to the appearance of Siberian conifers, including Daurian larch. During the second interglacial era, mountain taiga was dominant. It is typical for the southern regions of Yakutia at present. The last glaciation had almost no effect on the species composition of modern vegetation. The northern limit of the forest at that time, according to A.P. Vaskovsky, was noticeably shifted to the south.

Relief of North-East Siberia

The relief of North-Eastern Siberia forms several well-defined geomorphological stages. Each tier is associated with a hypsometric position, which was determined by the nature and intensity of recent tectonic movements. The position in high latitudes and the sharp continentality of the climate determine other altitudinal limits for the distribution of the corresponding types of mountainous relief. In its formation, the processes of nivation, solifluction, and frost weathering become more important.

Within North-Eastern Siberia, in accordance with morphogenetic characteristics, the following are distinguished:

Accumulative plains;
Erosion-denudation plains;
Plateau;
Lowlands;
Mid-mountain and low-mountain alpine terrain.

Certain areas of tectonic subsidence occupy accumulative plains, characterized by slightly rugged terrain and slight fluctuations in relative height. Such forms are widespread that owe their formation to permafrost processes, high ice content of loose sediments and thick underground ice.

Among them are:

Thermokarst basins;
Permafrost heaving mounds;
Frost cracks and polygons;
High ice cliffs on the sea coasts.

Accumulative plains include the Yana-Indigirskaya, Sredne-Indigirskaya, and Kolyma lowlands.

At the foot of a number of ridges - Anyuisky, Momsky, Kharaulakhsky, Kular - formed erosion-denudation plains. The surface of the plains has a height of no more than $200$ m, but can reach $400$-$500$ m on the slopes of a number of ridges. The loose sediments here are thin and are composed mainly of bedrock of different ages. As a result, here you can find gravelly placers, narrow valleys with rocky slopes, low hills, medallion spots, and solifluction terraces.

Between the Verkhoyansk ridge and the Chersky ridge there is a pronounced plateau terrain– Yanskoye, Elginskoye, Oymyakonskoye, Nerskoye plateaus. Most of the plateaus are composed of Mesozoic deposits. Their modern height is from $400$ to $1300$ m.

Those areas that were subject to uplifts of moderate amplitude in the Quaternary are occupied low mountains, with a height of $300$-$500$ m. They occupy a marginal position and are dissected by a dense network of deep river valleys. Typical landforms for them are an abundance of rocky placers and rocky peaks.

Mid-mountain terrain mainly characteristic of most of the massifs of the Verkhoyansk Range system. Yudomo-Maysky upland, Chersky ridge, Tas-Khayakhtakh, Momsky. There are also mid-mountain massifs in the Kolyma Highlands and Anyui Range. Their height ranges from $800$-$2200$ m. The mid-mountain massifs of North-Eastern Siberia are located in a strip of mountain tundra, above the upper limit of tree vegetation.

High alpine terrain. These are the ridges of the highest mountain ranges - Suntar-Khayata, Ulakhan-Chistai, Tas-Khayakhtakh, etc. They are associated with the areas of the most intense uplifts of the Quaternary period. The height is more than $2000$-$2200$ m. In the formation of the alpine relief, a significant role is played by the activity of Quaternary and modern glaciers, therefore large amplitudes of heights, deep dissection, narrow rocky ridges, cirques, cirques and other glacial forms of relief will be characteristic.

Eastern Siberia is the part of Siberia that includes the Asian territory of Russia from the Yenisei in the west to the watershed ridges running along the Pacific Ocean in the east. The region has a harsh climate, limited flora and fauna, and incredibly rich natural resources. Let's consider what belongs to Eastern Siberia, where its borders are located, what are the characteristics of the climate and wildlife.

Geographical location of Eastern Siberia

Eastern and Western Siberia occupy almost two-thirds of Russia's territory. The area of Eastern Siberia is 7.2 million km. Most of it is occupied by the taiga Central Siberian Plateau, which is replaced in the north by tundra lowlands, in the south and east by the high mountain ranges of the Western and Eastern Sayans, the mountains of Transbaikalia and the Yana-Kolmyk region. The largest rivers of Russia - the Yenisei and Lena - flow here.

Rice. 1. Eastern Siberia occupies an impressive area

Within Eastern Siberia there are the Krasnoyarsk and Transbaikal territories, the Irkutsk region, the republics of Buryatia, Yakutia, and Tuva.

The largest city in Eastern Siberia is Krasnoyarsk; major cities— Irkutsk, Ulan-Ude, Chita, Yakutsk, Norilsk.

Due to its large extent, Eastern Siberia includes several natural zones: arctic deserts, taiga, mixed forests and even dry steppes. This list can also include swampy tundra areas, but there are very few of them, and they are found, as a rule, within the lowlands on flat, poorly drained interfluves.

There are three time zones in Eastern Siberia - Krasnoyarsk time, Irkutsk time and Yakutsk time.

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Climate

Eastern Siberia lies in the temperate and cold zones. Depending on where a particular region of Eastern Siberia is located, the following climate types are distinguished:

The climate of the South of Eastern Siberia is extracontinental(Barguzin morphoclimatic region);
temperate continental(Nazarovsky and Krasnoyarsk-Kansky morphoclimatic regions);
sharply continental(Angara-Lena and Selenga morphoclimatic regions);
foothill-steppe, steppe(Koibalsky and Udinsky morphoclimatic regions).

There is less precipitation than in the western regions of Russia, the thickness of the snow cover is usually small, and permafrost is widespread in the north.

Winter in the northern regions is long and cold, temperatures reach −40–50 °C. Summers are warm and hot in the south. July in Eastern Siberia is warmer in some places than in the same latitudes of the European part of Russia, and there are more sunny days.

Rice. 2. Winter in Eastern Siberia

The amplitude of fluctuations in summer and winter temperatures reaches 40-65 °C, and in Eastern Yakutia - 100 °C.

Resources

One of the most important characteristics Eastern Siberia - the presence of a huge amount of resources. About half of all Russian forests are concentrated here. The bulk of timber reserves are valuable conifers: larch, spruce, Scots pine, fir, Siberian cedar.

Eastern Siberia contains about 70% of the reserves of stone and brown coal. This region is rich in ore deposits:

iron ores of the Korshunovsky and Abakansky deposits, Angara-Pitsky region;
copper-nickel ores of Norilsk;
Altai polymetals;
bauxites of the Eastern Sayan Mountains.

In Eastern Siberia there is the oldest Bodaibo gold deposit in the Irkutsk region. A significant amount of Russian oil is produced in the Krasnoyarsk Territory. Eastern Siberia is rich in nonmetallic minerals, including mica, graphite, building materials, and salts. There is also the largest diamond deposit on the border of the Krasnoyarsk Territory and Yakutia.

Rice. 3. Diamonds of Yakutia

Wildlife

The predominant type of vegetation is taiga. The East Siberian taiga extends from the boundaries of the forest-tundra in the north to the border with Mongolia in the south, over an area of about 5,000 thousand square meters. km., of which 3,455 thousand sq. km is occupied by coniferous forests.

The soils and vegetation of the taiga zone of Eastern Siberia are developing in more favorable conditions than in the tundra and forest-tundra zones. The relief is more rugged than in neighboring Western Siberia; rocky, often thin soils are formed on the bedrock.

To preserve nature in its original form, many reserves, national and natural parks have been opened in Eastern Siberia.

The Barguzinsky Nature Reserve is the oldest nature reserve in Russia. It was founded before the 1917 revolution to preserve and increase the number of sable. At the time of creation, there were only 20-30 sable individuals, currently there are 1-2 individuals per 1 square meter. km.

What have we learned?

In 8th grade, geography covers a topic dedicated to Eastern Siberia. It covers an incredibly large area, and its length from north to south is about 3 thousand km. Briefly about Eastern Siberia, we can say the following: it is a region with a harsh climate, not very diverse fauna and flora, and with large reserves of natural resources.