Trade, in a general understanding, is a human activity associated with the exchange of goods and services between producers and consumers.

Foreign trade is the process of exchange of goods and services between national economies (producing countries and consuming countries).

Subjects of foreign trade, i.e. those who carry out the international exchange of goods and services are private and public enterprises and organizations that sell and buy goods and services outside the national market.

International trade is the totality of foreign trade of all countries of the world.

Thus, international trade is a set of operations for the exchange of goods and services between foreign trade entities of all countries of the world.

International trade differs from domestic trade in that:

1) resources at the international level are less mobile than within the country;

2) each country has its own currency;

3) international trade is more subject to political control.

The international exchange of goods and services is carried out within two counter directions of movement of these goods and services:

Their sale by manufacturers (export);

Their purchase by consumers (import).

The market is a meeting place between buyer and seller, a system of interaction between supply and demand.

The development of material production and the establishment of a commodity economy based on the division of labor created objective conditions for the emergence of national domestic markets - a set of purchase and sale transactions during which domestic producers sell goods and services within their country.

Countries around the world are provided with economic resources to varying degrees. This, first of all, determines the emergence and development of international trade. Throughout history, international trade has constantly developed and expanded. Stable trade relations between different states began to form. The established domestic markets gradually went beyond national borders and began to form international markets, which represented those parts of national markets that were directly connected with foreign markets. Thus, international trade began to be systematized, and a world market began to form.

The world market is a sphere of stable commodity-money relations between countries, based on the international division of labor. It represents a set of national markets of all countries, economic relations between which are determined by international trade.

In the process of development of the world market, a system of world prices was formed.

World price is the monetary expression of the global value of a product sold on the world market. The world price serves to determine the prices at which most trade transactions in the world are concluded.

World prices are formed under the influence of the relationship between world demand and world supply for a particular product. The formation of world prices is influenced by the world's leading manufacturers and suppliers (sellers), who have a significant share in the total global volume of these products and constantly maintain their leading position in these commodity markets.

The world market is a combination of world demand and world supply, which materialize in two counter flows of goods and (or) services - export and import.

The economic efficiency of exports is determined by the fact that foreign trade entities sell on the world market those products whose production costs are lower than the global ones. The size of the winnings depends on the ratio of national and world prices of a given product.

When importing goods, a country acquires goods the production of which is currently not economically profitable. The economic efficiency of imports refers to the economic gain that a country receives due to the rapid satisfaction of its needs for certain goods through imports and the release of resources spent on the production of similar goods within the country.

In the pre-industrial era and in the early stages of industrialization of the leading countries of the world, international trade was dominated by products agriculture, extractive industries and textiles (2/3 of world trade in physical goods). Raw materials and food were exported from agricultural countries, finished products, mainly for consumer purposes, from industrial countries.

Later, with the transition of advanced countries to machine production, they began to play a leading role in world trade turnover. finished goods(75% of world trade in physical goods). Competition confronted manufacturers with the need to constantly update production technology, reduce production costs, and improve the consumer properties of products.

Later, the role of machinery and equipment in world trade increased. Overall, trade in machinery and equipment accounts for 1/3 of all modern world trade in physical goods.

The structure of trade is very diverse in different countries. Poorer developing countries tend to export food and raw materials and import manufactured goods.

Industrialized countries import raw materials and export processed products.

The export and import of services (invisible exports) play an important role in international trade:

1) all types of international and transit transport;

2) foreign tourism;

3) telecommunications;

4) banking and insurance;

5) computer software;

6) health care and education services, etc.

Over the past two decades, global exchange of services has increased three times faster than the exchange of goods. According to experts, the service sector currently accounts for 20% of all modern world trade.

Competition in the world market is a struggle between subjects of foreign trade of states for the best conditions on the world market, i.e. for increasing the volume of exported goods and services favorable prices(maximum exceeding costs)

Natural properties many goods (beef, oranges, mineral fuels) are more or less similar. The main factor in their competitiveness is the price, which is based on the costs of production, storage and transportation. These costs are determined by the cost of labor and the level of labor productivity, which largely depends on the technical equipment of production. The main form of struggle for markets for such goods is price competition.

The basis of competition in the market of finished products is the consumer properties of the product, quality (a set of properties that satisfy the needs or expectations of individual needs). The ratio of quality and price of purchased finished products usually depends on the volume of means of payment of the importer (on the average level of income in the country). Consumer goods best quality are imported mainly into countries with the highest per capita incomes, products of average quality - into countries with moderate incomes, etc.

International forms economic relations

The country's balance of payments and its structure

1. International trade in goods and services. Technology as a commodity on the world market.

2. International monetary relations.

3. International labor migration.

4. Balance of payments of the country. Structure of the balance of payments.

5. Trends in the development of international economic relations in the 21st century. Prospects for the participation of the Republic of Belarus in international economic relations.

Introduction

Currently, the process of globalization and integration of various countries into the world economic community is flourishing. Now it is impossible to imagine a world without all kinds of interrelations between countries in matters of trade in goods, services, technologies, etc. At the same time everything higher value acquire financial and credit relations between countries in the global economic space. International financial and credit organizations (for example, the IMF) are created that mediate such relations. All these factors determine the relevance of this issue, especially since the development prospects for the Republic of Belarus are a maximally open economy, the development of trade and credit and financial relations with various countries of the world, which will undoubtedly have a beneficial effect on the economy of our country.

International trade in goods and services. Technology as a commodity on the world market.

International trade is the exchange of goods and services between different countries, associated with the general internationalization of economic life and the intensification of the international division of labor in the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution.

Foreign trade arose in ancient times. In formations based on subsistence farming, a small portion of products entered international exchange, mainly luxury goods, spices, and some types of mineral raw materials.

A powerful stimulus for the development of international trade was the transition from subsistence farming to commodity-money relations, as well as the creation of national states, the establishment industrial relations both within countries and between them.

The creation of large-scale industry made it possible to make a qualitative leap in the development of productive forces in international trade. This led to an increase in the scale of production and improved transportation of goods, i.e. preconditions were created for the expansion of economic and trade relations between countries, and at the same time the need to expand international trade increased. On modern stage international trade is the most developed form of international economic relations. Its necessity is due to the following factors:

Firstly, the formation of the world market as one of the historical prerequisites of the capitalist mode of production;

Secondly, the uneven development of individual industries in different countries Oh; products of the most dynamically developing industries, which cannot be sold on the domestic market, are exported abroad;

Thirdly, the tendency that has arisen at the current stage of economic development towards limitless expansion of production volumes, while the capacity of the domestic market is limited by the effective demand of the population. Therefore, production inevitably outgrows the limits of domestic demand, and entrepreneurs in each country wage a stubborn struggle for foreign markets.

Consequently, the interest of individual countries in expanding their international relations is explained by the need to sell products on foreign markets, the need to obtain certain goods from outside and, finally, the desire to extract higher profits due to the use of cheap labor and raw materials from developing countries.

There are a number of indicators that characterize a country’s activity in world trade:

1. Export quota – the ratio of the volume of exported goods and services to GDP/GNP; at the industry level, this is the share of goods and services exported by the industry in their total volume. Characterizes the degree of inclusion of the country in foreign economic relations.

2. Export potential is the share of products that a certain country can sell on the world market without damaging its own economy.

3. Export structure - the ratio or share of exported goods by type and degree of processing. The structure of exports allows us to highlight the raw materials or machine-technological orientation of exports and determine the country’s role in international industrial specialization.

Thus, a high share of manufacturing products in a country’s exports, as a rule, indicates a high scientific, technical and production level of the industries whose products are exported.

4. Import structure, especially the ratio of the volumes of raw materials imported into the country and finished final products. This indicator most accurately reflects the dependence of the country’s economy on the foreign market and the level of development of sectors of the national economy.

5. Comparative ratio of the country’s share in world GDP/GNP production and its share in world trade. So, if a country’s share in the world production of any type of product is 10%, and its share in international trade of this product is 1-2%, then this may mean that the goods produced do not meet the world quality level as a consequence low level development of this industry.

6. The volume of exports per capita characterizes the degree of openness of the economy of a given state.

The world's largest exporters include Germany, Japan, USA, France, Great Britain, and Italy. Among developing countries, it is necessary to highlight the so-called “newly industrialized countries” Southeast Asia(NIS SEA), namely: Hong Kong (Hong Kong), South Korea, Singapore and Taiwan, whose total exports exceed those of France, as well as China, in the Middle East - Saudi Arabia, in Latin America - Brazil and Mexico. These countries occupy approximately the same position in world imports. The world's largest importer is the United States.

The export and import of services (invisible exports) play an important role in international trade:

1) all types of international and transit transport;

2) foreign tourism;

3) telecommunications;

4) banking and insurance;

5) computer software;

6) health care and education services, etc.

With a decrease in exports of some traditional services, there is an increase in services related to the use of scientific and technical achievements.

The natural properties of many goods (beef, oranges, mineral fuels) are more or less similar. The main factor in their competitiveness is price, or rather the costs of production, storage and transportation. These costs are determined by the cost of labor and the level of labor productivity, which largely depends on the technical equipment of production.

The main form of struggle for markets for such goods is price competition.

The basis of competition in the market of finished products is the consumer properties of the product. This is largely due to the fact that the quality of finished products is variable.

We can highlight one more type of product on the world market - technology. Technology is scientific methods of achieving practical goals. The concept of technology usually includes three groups of technologies: product technology, process technology and control technology.

International technology transfer is the interstate movement of scientific and technological achievements on a commercial or free basis.

The objects of the global technology market are the results of intellectual activity in materialized (equipment, units, tools, technological lines, etc.) and intangible forms (various types technical documentation, knowledge, experience, services, etc.).

The subjects of the global technology market are states, universities, firms, non-profit organizations, foundations and individuals– scientists and specialists.

Technology becomes a commodity, that is, a product that can only be sold under certain conditions. Technology is approaching becoming a commodity at a certain stage of the “idea-market” movement, namely when the real possibility of commercializing an idea is realized, an examination has been carried out, screening has been carried out, and possible areas of use have been identified. And even in this case, the product-technology must have presentation, that is, satisfy standard requirements for the product. By acquiring a marketable form (patent, production experience, know-how, equipment, etc.), technology becomes a commodity and can be the subject of technology transfer.

Technology transfer is carried out in various forms, in different ways and through different channels.

Forms of technology transfer on a non-commercial basis:

– huge information arrays of specialized literature, computer data banks, patents, reference books, etc.;

– conferences, exhibitions, symposiums, seminars, clubs, including permanent ones;

– training, internship, practice of students, scientists and specialists, carried out on a parity basis by universities, firms, organizations, etc.;

– migration of scientists and specialists, including international, the so-called “brain drain” from scientific to commercial structures and vice versa, the establishment of new high-tech venture-type firms by specialists from universities and corporations, the creation of foreign marketing and research divisions by large corporations.

The main flow of technology transfer in non-commercial form is in the form of non-patentable information - fundamental R&D, business games, scientific discoveries and unpatented inventions.

In addition to the official one, the illegal “transfer” of technology has recently become widespread in the form of industrial espionage and technological “piracy” - the mass production and sale of imitative technologies by shadow structures. Technological piracy is most developed in the NIS of Southeast Asia.

The main forms of commercial transfer of information are:

– sale of technology in materialized form – machines, units, automatic and electronic equipment, technological lines, etc.;

– foreign investments and the accompanying construction, reconstruction, modernization of enterprises, firms, production, if they are accompanied by an influx of investment goods, as well as leasing;

– sale of patents (patent agreements are an international trade transaction under which the owner of the patent assigns his rights to use the invention to the buyer of the patent. Typically, small, highly specialized firms that are not able to put the invention into production sell patents to large corporations);

– sale of licenses for all types of patented industrial property, except for trademarks (licensing agreements - an international trade transaction under which the owner of an invention or technical knowledge grants the other party permission to use, within certain limits, its rights to the technology);

– sale of licenses for unpatented types of industrial property - “know-how”, production secrets, technological experience, accompanying documents for equipment, instructions, diagrams, as well as training of specialists, advisory support, examination, etc. (“know-how” - provision technical experience and production secrets, including information of a technological, economic, administrative, financial nature, the use of which provides certain advantages. The subject of sale in this case is usually unpatented inventions of commercial value);

– joint R&D, scientific and production cooperation;

–engineering – provision of technological knowledge necessary for the acquisition, installation and use of purchased or leased machinery and equipment. They include a wide range of activities for the preparation of feasibility studies of projects, consultations, supervision, design, testing, warranty and post-warranty service.

Almost all technology transfer in commercial form is formalized or accompanied by a licensing agreement.

Human society is unthinkable without international or global trade. It is historically the first form of different countries. In this regard, international trade means trading settlements and fairs, the activities of which have been known since time immemorial.

Currently, it plays an equally important role. The modern definition is that international trade is special kind commodity-money relations based on the export of raw materials or finished products.

It is based on the division of labor. Simply put, countries produce a certain product, which they exchange when entering into cooperation. Therefore, we can safely say that currently international trade is the mutual exchange of goods and services between the national economies of the world's states.

Factors driving progress:

Socio-geographical: differences in topographical position, size and mental characteristics of the population;

Natural and climatic: differences in the provision of water and forest resources, as well as minerals.

Developed technologies and changes in economic indicators also play an important role. All this contributes to strong relationships between national economies.

Production is growing slower than This is confirmed by the data. According to the results of her research, for every 10% increase in production, there is a 16% increase in world trade.

The organization of international trade is impossible without such a concept as “foreign trade”. It is divided into: trade in finished products, equipment, raw materials and services.

In a narrow sense, international trade is the total trade turnover of developed countries, developing countries, and the trade turnover of countries of any continent or region.

As practice shows, the country’s interest in world trade is due to the following advantages:

Introduction to world achievements;

Rational use of available resources;

The ability to rebuild the structure of the economy in the shortest possible time;

Meeting the needs of the population.

There are various types international trade:

Trade in goods and services;

Exchange trading;

Fairs;

Auctions;

Countertrade;

Trading compensation transactions.

If everything is very clear, then the remaining points make you think, so to fully understand the picture, let's look at this issue in more detail.

So, a trading exchange is an association of sellers, intermediaries and buyers. Such unions help improve trade, accelerate trade turnover and free pricing.

Fairs are auctions held periodically at a designated location. They are regional, international and local. During this period of time widespread We received exhibitions and fairs where you can order the product you like.

Auctions are a form of selling goods that were previously put up for inspection. Such transactions take place at a designated time in a strictly defined place. Distinctive feature auctions - limited liability for the quality of goods.

Countertrade occurs in several directions: barter and counterpurchase.

Barter is an agreement on value. Such transactions take place without the participation of funds.

The last type of international trade is a compensation transaction, which differs from barter in that it involves not one, but several goods.

Thus, global trade is carried out in several ways that are developing and improving every minute.

International trade - is the exchange of goods and services between sellers and buyers of different countries, mediated by currency exchange. From the point of view of an individual national economy, international trade takes the form foreign trade - a set of exchange transactions of goods and services of a single country with other countries of the world.

International trade consists of two basic counter flows: export export and sale of goods (provision of services) abroad and import - purchasing and importing goods (receiving services) from abroad. Special varieties import and export is re-export and re-import. Re-export - this is the export of goods previously imported from abroad that were not processed in a given country, as well as goods sold at international auctions, commodity exchanges, etc. Re-import - this is the import from abroad of goods previously exported from the country without any processing in the foreign country.

Objects international trade is goods (final products for industrial and non-industrial purposes, semi-finished products, raw materials, fuel, etc.) and services (business, financial, computer, information, transport, tourism, etc.).

Subjects international trade are:

Direct buyers and sellers of goods and services, which are represented by states, legal entities and individuals;

Resellers are firms and institutions that help speed up the sale of goods;

International and intergovernmental organizations that form the institutional environment and provide economic and legal regulation of trade.

International Trade Methods

In international practice, two main implementation methods export-import operations - trade without intermediaries And trade through intermediaries. Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Direct conclusion of a transaction between the seller and the buyer allows you to save on paying for the services of an intermediary and reduces the risk of losses from possible dishonesty or incompetence. Direct contacts can contribute to better orientation of sellers to the changing requirements of buyers and the introduction of necessary changes in the characteristics of the product, etc. At the same time, firms resorting to direct trade are forced to incur costs for studying and analyzing sales markets, for creating sales centers in other countries networks, for the maintenance of lawyers for the preparation of agreements, transportation and implementation of customs formalities, etc. If the costs of direct trade exceed the benefits from it, it is advisable to resort to the services of intermediaries.

Trade intermediaries can be both legal entities and individuals who, on a commercial basis, carry out the search for foreign partners, preparation of documentation for signing contracts, credit and financial services, transportation, storage, insurance of goods, after-sales service, etc. The participation of intermediaries, first of all, frees manufacturers from the sale of goods, increases the efficiency of sales and, by reducing distribution costs, increases the profitability of foreign economic transactions. Typically, specialized intermediaries respond more quickly to changes in market conditions, which also increases the efficiency of trade.

In the practice of international trade, the following types of intermediary operations are distinguished:

- dealerships, in which an intermediary trading company buys the goods from the manufacturer who resells them, acting on its own behalf and at its own expense, and bears all the risks of loss or destruction of the goods; goods are sold under dealer agreements distributors;

- commissions, in which the reseller sells and buys goods on his own behalf, but at the expense and on behalf of the guarantor, in an agreement with which technical and commercial terms purchases and sales and the amount of commission is determined;

- agency, in which the intermediary acts on behalf of the principal and at his expense; representative agents carry out marketing research, advertising and PR campaigns, organize business contacts with importers, government and other organizations on which the placement of orders depends; agent-attorneys have the right, on the basis of a mandate agreement, to enter into transactions on behalf of the principal;

- brokerage, for which trading companies or individuals bring together sellers and buyers, coordinate their proposals, conclude transactions at the expense of the principal, acting on his behalf and on his own.

A special place among international trade intermediaries is occupied by institutional intermediaries - commodity exchanges, auctions and trades (tenders).

International commodity exchanges are permanent wholesale markets where the purchase and sale of homogeneous goods is carried out with clear and stable quality characteristics, corresponding to the unified standardization system. According to their organizational and legal form, most exchanges are joint stock companies closed type. Depending on the product range, exchanges are divided into universal And specialized. The largest in terms of transaction volumes are universal exchanges, where the purchase and sale of a wide range of various goods takes place. For example, on the Chicago Board of Trade exchange (more than 40% of the volume of US agreements) wheat, corn, oats, soybeans, soybean oil, gold, and securities are traded. On specialized exchanges, goods of a narrow range are sold and bought, for example, on the London Stock Exchange metals trade in non-ferrous metals - copper, aluminum, nickel, etc.

The sale of exchange-traded goods is mainly carried out without their delivery to the exchange, using samples or standard descriptions. In fact, on a commodity exchange it is not goods as such that are sold, but contracts for their supply. Transactions with real goods constitute a small share of the total volume of exchange transactions (12%). Depending on the delivery time, they are divided into transactions with immediate delivery (“spot”), when the goods are transferred from the exchange warehouse to the buyer within 15 days after the conclusion of the contract, and transactions involving the delivery of goods at a specific date in the future at the price fixed at the time of conclusion of the contract (forward transactions). The vast majority of exchange transactions are futures transactions. Unlike transactions on real goods, futures contracts provide for the purchase and sale of rights to goods at the price that is set at the time of the transaction between the seller and the buyer (or their brokers) on the exchange.

Exchange futures perform an important function of insuring the risk of losses from changes in prices of real goods - hedging. The hedging mechanism is based on the fact that changes in market prices for real goods and futures are the same in size and direction. Consequently, if one of the parties to the transaction loses as a seller of a real commodity, then he wins as a buyer of a futures contract for the same amount of commodity, and vice versa. Let us assume that the manufacturing company copper wire signed a contract for the delivery of a certain quantity in 6 months. She needs 3 months to complete the order. It is unprofitable to purchase copper 6 months before the order is completed: it will be stored in a warehouse for 3 months, which will require storage costs and the payment of additional interest on the loan for its purchase. At the same time, postponing its purchase is also risky, since the market price of copper may rise. Taking this into account, the company buys futures for the required amount of copper. Let the futures quote be 95.2 thousand dollars with the price of a real commodity being 95.0 thousand dollars. After 3 months, copper has risen in price, which also caused an increase in the futures price: the same amount of copper now costs 96.0 thousand dollars, and futures - 96.2 thousand dollars. By buying copper as a real commodity for 96.0 thousand dollars, the company loses 10 thousand dollars. But it sells the futures at 96.2 thousand dollars and thereby wins 10 thousand. dollars. Thus, the company has insured itself against losses due to price increases and will be able to receive the planned profit.

International auctions represent a form of public purchase and sale of goods based on price competition among buyers. The subject of auctions are goods that have expressed individual properties- furs, tea, tobacco, spices, flowers, racehorses, antiques, etc. Preparation for auction sales involves the formation of lots - batches of goods of uniform quality, each of which is assigned a number. Under this number, the lot indicating the characteristics of the product is entered into the auction catalog. General rule of all auctions - the lack of responsibility of the seller for the quality of the goods (the buyer himself sees the goods and knows what he is buying). Auctions are held on a predetermined day and time in a specially equipped room. The auctioneer announces the lot number, its starting price, and buyers make their offers regarding the price. The lot is sold to the highest bidder. The vast majority of auction sales are carried out precisely according to this scheme, which is called the “English auction”. In some countries, a price reduction method is used, which is called the “Dutch auction”: the auctioneer announces the highest price of the lot and, if there are no people willing to purchase the goods at this price, begins to gradually reduce her until the item is sold. The most famous are tea auctions in Calcutta (India), Colombo (Sri Lanka), Jakarta (Indonesia), antique auctions - Sotheby's and Christie's in London, fur auctions in Copenhagen (Norway) and St. Petersburg (Russia) .

International trading (tenders) It is also a competitive form of purchase and sale of goods, in which buyers announce a competition for sellers to supply goods with certain technical and economic characteristics. International tenders are the most common way of placing orders for the construction of production and non-production facilities, the supply of machinery and equipment, and the implementation of research and development design work, they are also used to select a foreign partner when creating joint venture. All interested companies can take part in open tenders; in closed tenders, only those that have received an invitation to participate, usually these are well-known suppliers or contractors on the world market. Buyers create a tender committee, which includes representatives of the buying organization, as well as technical and commercial experts. After comparing the received proposals, the winner of the auction is determined, who offered the goods on more favorable terms for the buyer and on which the buyer signs the contract.

The most expressive modern trends in the development of international tender trade is an increase in the number of participants, an increase in the number of tenders for the construction of complex facilities, for new types of machinery, equipment, new technologies, engineering and consulting services, a significant reorientation of priorities from price factors to non-price factors (the possibility of obtaining loans on preferential terms, opportunities further placement of orders and long-term cooperation, political factors, etc.).

1. International trade in goods and services.

International trade as the main form of IEO. The basis of economic relations in Moscow is international trade. It accounts for about 80% of the total volume of IEO. The material basis for the development of trade is the ever-deepening international division of labor, which objectively determines the connection between individual territories and countries specializing in the production of a particular product. The interaction of commodity producers from different countries in the process of buying and selling goods and services shapes the relations of the world market.

International trade is the sphere of international commodity-money relations, a specific form of exchange of labor products (goods and services) between sellers and buyers of different countries. If foreign trade represents the trade of one country with other countries, consisting of the import (import) and export (export) of goods and services, then international trade is the totality of foreign trade of countries around the world.

International trade affects the state of the national economy by performing the following functions:

1) replenishment of the missing elements of national production, which makes the “consumer basket” of economic agents of the national economy more diverse;

2) transformation of the natural-material structure of GDP due to the ability external factors production to modify and diversify this structure;

3) effect-forming function, i.e. the ability of external factors to influence the growth of the efficiency of national production, maximization of national income with a one-time reduction in social necessary costs for its production.

International trade arose in ancient times, it was carried out in both slave and feudal society. At that time, a small part of the products produced was traded internationally, mainly luxury goods, spices, and some types of raw materials. Since the second half of the 20th century, international trade has intensified significantly. Analyzing the processes taking place in modern international trade, we can highlight its main trend - liberalization: there is a significant reduction in the level of customs duties, many restrictions and quotas are abolished. At the same time, the policy of protectionism aimed at protecting national producers is intensifying. According to forecasts, high rates of international. trade will continue in the first half of the 21st century.

In international trade, two main methods (methods) of trade are used: direct method - performing a transaction directly between the manufacturer and the consumer; indirect method - performing a transaction through an intermediary. The direct method brings certain financial benefits: it reduces costs by the amount of commission to the intermediary; reduces the risk and dependence of the results of commercial activities on possible dishonesty or insufficient competence of the intermediary organization; allows you to constantly be on the market, take into account changes and respond to them. But the direct method requires significant commercial qualifications and trading experience.

International trade in goods takes place in a wide variety of forms. Forms of international trade are types of foreign trade operations. These include: wholesale; countertrade; commodity exchanges; futures exchanges; international trading; international auctions; fairs.

Currently, almost all subjects of the world economy are involved in international trade. Developed countries account for 65% of export-import transactions, developing countries account for 28%, and countries with economies in transition account for less than 10%. The undoubted leaders in world trade are the USA, Japan and EU countries. IN recent years there has been a steady trend towards a decrease in the share of developed countries in world trade (back in the 80s, their share accounted for 84% of world exports and imports) due to rapid development a number of developing countries.

Question 2. International trade in goods. International trade is also characterized by such categories as “export” and “import”. Export (export) of goods means the sale of goods on the foreign market. Importation of goods is the purchase of foreign goods. Main forms of export (import):

– export (import) of finished products with pre-sale finishing in the buyer’s country;

– export (import) of finished products;

– export (import) of products in disassembled form;

– export (import) of spare parts;

– export (import) of raw materials and semi-finished products;

– export (import) of services;

– temporary export (import) of goods (exhibitions, auctions).

International trade is characterized by three important characteristics: total volume (foreign trade turnover); commodity structure; geographical structure.

Foreign trade turnover is the sum of the value of exports and imports of a particular country. The goods are included in international exchange when crossing the border. The sum of exports and imports forms the trade turnover, and the difference between exports and imports represents the trade balance. The trade balance can be positive (active) or negative (deficit, passive). Trade surplus is the excess of a country's merchandise exports over its merchandise imports. Passive trade balance is a foreign trade balance, which is characterized by the excess of the import of goods (import) over the export (export). World trade turnover includes all commodity flows circulating between countries, regardless of whether they are sold on market or other terms, or remain the property of the supplier. In international practice of statistical accounting of exports and imports, the date of registration is the moment of goods crossing the customs border of the country. The cost of exports and imports is calculated in most countries at contract prices reduced to a single basis, namely: exports - at FOB prices, imports - at CIF prices.

Considering the commodity structure of international trade in the first half of the 20th century (before World War 2) and in subsequent years, significant changes can be noted. If in the first half of the century 2/3 of world trade turnover was accounted for by food, raw materials and fuel, then by the end of the century they accounted for 1/4 of trade turnover. The share of trade in manufacturing products increased from 1/3 to 3/4. More than 1/3 of all world trade is trade in machinery and equipment. A rapidly growing area of ​​international trade is trade in chemical products. It should be noted that there is a trend in increasing consumption of raw materials and energy resources. However, the growth rate of trade in raw materials lags noticeably behind the overall growth rate of world trade. In the global food market, such trends can be explained by the falling share of the agricultural sector itself compared to industry. This slowdown is also explained by the desire for food self-sufficiency in developed and a number of developing countries (especially China and India). Active trade in machinery and equipment has given rise to a number of new services, such as engineering, leasing, consulting, information and computing services, which, in turn, stimulates the intercountry exchange of services, especially of a scientific, technical, production, communication financial and credit nature. At the same time, trade in services (especially such as information computing, consulting, leasing, and engineering) stimulates global trade in capital goods. Trade in science-intensive goods and high-tech products is developing most dynamically, which stimulates intercountry exchange of services, especially of a scientific, technical, production, communication and financial and credit nature. In addition to traditional types of services (transport, financial and credit, tourism, etc.) all bigger place In international exchange, new types of services are occupied, developing under the influence of scientific and technological revolution. The commodity structure of international trade is presented in Table 2.

Thus, the world market of goods at the present stage is significantly diversified, and the product range of foreign trade turnover is extremely wide, which is associated with the deepening of MRI and a huge variety of needs for industrial and consumer goods.

There have been significant changes in the geographical structure of international trade under the influence of economic and political factors in the world since the 90s of the twentieth century. The leading role still belongs to industrialized countries. In the group of developing countries, there is a pronounced unevenness in the degree of participation in international trade in goods.

Table 2.10.1 – Commodity structure of world exports by main groups of goods, %

Main product groups	First half XX century	End XXcentury
Food (including drinks and tobacco)
Mineral fuel
Manufacturing products, including:
equipment, vehicles
chemical goods
other manufacturing products industry
Ferrous and non-ferrous metals
Textiles (fabrics, clothing)

The share of Middle Eastern countries is decreasing, which is explained by the instability of oil prices and the aggravation of contradictions between OPEC countries. The foreign trade situation of many African countries included in the group of least developed countries is unstable. South Africa provides 1/3 of African exports. The situation in countries is also not stable enough Latin America, because Their raw material export orientation remains (2/3 of their export income comes from raw materials). The increase in the share of Asian countries in international trade was ensured by high economic growth rates (an average of 6% per year) and the reorientation of its exports to finished products (2/3 of the value of exports). Thus, the increase in the overall share of developing countries in international trade is ensured by the newly industrialized countries (China, Taiwan, Singapore). Malaysia and Indonesia are gaining weight. The main flow of international trade falls on developed countries - 55%; 27% of international trade is between developed countries and developing countries; 13% – between developing countries; 5% – between countries with economies in transition and all other countries. The economic power of Japan has noticeably changed the geography of international trade, giving it a tripolar character: North America, Western Europe and Asia-Pacific region.

International trade in services.

Currently, in Moscow, along with the goods market, the service market is also developing rapidly, because The service sector occupies a significant place in national economies, especially in developed countries. The service sector developed especially rapidly in the second half of the 20th century, which was facilitated by the following factors:

– the deepening of the international division of labor leads to the formation of new types of activities and, above all, in the service sector;

– a long economic recovery in most countries, which led to increased growth rates, business activity, solvency of the population, demand for services is growing;

– development of scientific and technical progress, which leads to the emergence of new types of services and expansion of the scope of their application;

– development of other forms of IEO

Specificity of services: services are produced and consumed simultaneously and are not stored; services are intangible and invisible; services are characterized by heterogeneity and variability of quality; not all types of services can be involved in international trade, for example, utilities; there are no intermediaries when trading services; international trade in services is not subject to customs control; International trade in services, more than trade in goods, is protected by the state from foreign competitors.

International practice defines the following 12 service sectors, which, in turn, include 155 subsectors: commercial services; postal and communication services; construction work and structures; trade services; educational services; security services environment; services in the field of financial intermediation; health and social services; services related to tourism; services for organizing recreation, cultural and sports events; transport services; other services not included. In the system of national accounts, services are divided into consumer (tourism, hotel services), social (education, medicine), production (engineering, consulting, financial and credit services), distribution (trade, transport, freight).

International exchange of services is mainly carried out between developed countries and is characterized by a high degree of concentration. Developed countries are the main exporters of services. They account for about 70% of world trade in services, and there has been a steady trend towards a reduction in their role due to the rapid development of a number of developing countries. The volume of international trade in services exceeds 1.6 trillion. $, the growth rate is also dynamic. In terms of growth rates and volume, the following types of services lead in the world economy: financial, computer, accounting, auditing, consulting, legal. The specialization of a country in certain types of services depends on the level of its economic development. IN developed countries financial, telecommunications, information and business services predominate. For developing countries Characterized by specialization in transport and tourism services.

International trade regulation.

The development of international economic relations is accompanied not only by national regulation of foreign trade, but also by the emergence in recent decades of various forms of interstate interaction in this area. As a result, the regulatory measures of one country have a direct impact on the economies of other states, which take reciprocal steps to protect their producers and consumers, which necessitates coordination of the regulatory process at the interstate level. International trade policy -a coordinated policy of states for the purpose of conducting trade between them, as well as its development and positive impact on the growth of individual countries and the world community.

The main subject of international trade liberalization remains the international trade organization GATT/WTO. GATT - an international agreement for consultations on international trade issues(this is a code of conduct for international trade). GATT was signed in 1947 by 23 countries and was in force until 1995, when the World Trade Organization (WTO) was created on its basis. GATT promoted trade liberalization through international negotiations. The functions of the GATT were to develop rules for international trade, to regulate and liberalize trade relations.

Basic GATT principles: trade must be non-discriminatory; eliminating discrimination through the introduction of the most favored nation principle in relation to the export, import and transit of goods; liberalization of international trade by reducing customs duties and eliminating other restrictions; trade security; predictability of entrepreneurs' actions and regulation of government actions; reciprocity in the provision of trade and political concessions, settlement of disputes through negotiations and consultations; the use of quantitative restrictions is not allowed, all measures of quantitative restrictions must be transformed into tariff duties; tariffs must be reduced through amicable negotiations and cannot be subsequently increased; When making decisions, participating countries must carry out mandatory consultations among themselves, ensuring the inadmissibility of unilateral actions.

The WTO monitors the implementation of all previous agreements concluded under the auspices of the GATT. Membership in the WTO means for each participating state the automatic acceptance in full of its package of already concluded agreements. In turn, the WTO is significantly expanding the scope of its competence, becoming the most important international body regulating the development of international economic relations. Countries wishing to join the WTO must: begin the process of rapprochement with WTO member countries, which takes a significant period of time; make trade concessions; comply with GATT/WTO principles.

Belarus is not yet a member of the WTO and is in a discriminatory position in the world market. It suffers losses from anti-dumping policies; it is subject to supply restrictions high technology. In addition, Belarus is not yet ready to join the WTO, but constant work is being done in this direction.

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) convened since 1964 once every 4 years. The most significant UNCTAD decisions are the Generalized System of Preferences (1968), the New International Economic Order (1974) and the Integrated Commodities Program (1976). Generalized system of preferences means providing trade benefits developing countries on a non-reciprocal basis. This means that developed countries should not demand in return any concessions for their goods in the markets of developing countries. Since 1971, developed countries began to provide common system preferences for developing countries. The USSR abolished all restrictions on the import of goods from developing countries in 1965. In 1974. At the proposal of developing countries, fundamental documents were adopted to establish new international economic order (NIEO) in relations between the countries of the North and the South. The NMEP spoke about the formation of a new MRI, focused on the accelerated industrialization of developing countries; on the formation of a new structure of international trade that meets the goals of accelerated development and raising the living standards of peoples. Developed countries were asked to make adjustments to the economic structure of their economies and free up niches for goods from developing countries. In accordance with the NMEP, it is necessary to provide assistance to developing countries in the development of food and to promote the expansion of its exports from developing countries.

Others are also involved in international trade issues international organizations. Included Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which includes all developed countries, there is a Trade Committee. Its mission is to promote the expansion of global exchange of goods and services on a multilateral basis; consideration of general problems of trade policy, balance of payments balance, conclusions on the advisability of providing loans to members of the organization. Within the framework of the OECD, measures are being developed for the administrative and technical unification of rules in the field of foreign trade, uniform standards are being developed, recommendations for changes in trade policy, and others. The foreign trade of developing and transition countries, especially insolvent debtors, is significantly impacted by International Monetary Fund (IMF). Under pressure from the IMF, the markets of these countries are being rapidly liberalized in exchange for loans.