Russian Emperor Alexander I Pavlovich was born on December 25 (12 according to the old style) December 1777. He was the first-born son of Emperor Paul I (1754-1801) and Empress Maria Feodorovna (1759-1828).

Immediately after his birth, Alexander was taken from his parents by his grandmother, Empress Catherine II, who intended to raise the baby to be an ideal sovereign. On the recommendation of the philosopher Denis Diderot, the Swiss Frederic Laharpe, a republican by conviction, was invited to become a teacher.

Grand Duke Alexander grew up believing in the ideals of the Enlightenment, sympathized with the Great French Revolution and was critical of the system of Russian autocracy.

Alexander's critical attitude towards the policies of Paul I contributed to his involvement in the conspiracy against his father, but on the conditions that the conspirators would save the life of the king and would only seek his abdication. The violent death of Paul on March 23 (11 according to the old calendar) seriously affected Alexander - he felt a sense of guilt for the death of his father until the end of his days.

In the first days after ascending the throne in March 1801, Alexander I created the Permanent Council - a legislative advisory body under the sovereign, which had the right to protest the actions and decrees of the tsar. But due to inconsistencies among members, none of his projects were made public.

Alexander I carried out a number of reforms: merchants, townspeople and state-owned (related to the state) villagers were given the right to buy uninhabited lands (1801), ministries and a cabinet of ministers were established (1802), a decree was issued on free cultivators (1803), which created the category personally free peasants.

In 1822, Alexander founded Masonic lodges and other secret societies.

Emperor Alexander I died on December 2 (November 19, old style) 1825 from typhoid fever in Taganrog, where he accompanied his wife, Empress Elizabeth Alekseevna, for treatment.

The emperor often told his loved ones about his intention to abdicate the throne and “remove the world,” which gave rise to the legend about the elder Fyodor Kuzmich, according to which Alexander’s double died and was buried in Taganrog, while the king lived as an old hermit in Siberia and died in 1864

Alexander I was married to the German princess Louise-Maria-August of Baden-Baden (1779-1826), who adopted the name Elizabeth Alekseevna upon converting to Orthodoxy. From this marriage two daughters were born who died in infancy.

The material was prepared based on information from open sources

On the night of March 11-12, 1801, when Emperor Paul I was killed as a result of a conspiracy, the question of the accession of his eldest son Alexander Pavlovich to the Russian throne was decided. He was privy to the conspiracy plan. Hopes were pinned on the new monarch to carry out liberal reforms and soften the regime of personal power.
Emperor Alexander I was raised under the supervision of his grandmother, Catherine II. He was familiar with the ideas of the Enlightenmentists - Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau. However, Alexander Pavlovich never separated thoughts about equality and freedom from autocracy. This half-heartedness became a feature of both the transformations and the reign of Emperor Alexander I.
His first manifestos indicated the adoption of a new political course. It proclaimed the desire to rule according to the laws of Catherine II, to lift restrictions on trade with England, and contained an amnesty and the reinstatement of persons repressed under Paul I.
All work related to the liberalization of life was concentrated in the so-called. A secret committee where friends and associates of the young emperor gathered - P.A. Stroganov, V.P. Kochubey, A. Czartoryski and N.N. Novosiltsev - adherents of constitutionalism. The committee existed until 1805. It was mainly involved in preparing a program for the liberation of peasants from serfdom and the reform of the state system. The result of this activity was the law of December 12, 1801, which allowed state peasants, petty bourgeois and merchants to acquire uninhabited lands, and the decree of February 20, 1803 “On free cultivators,” which gave landowners the right, at their request, to free the peasants with their land for ransom.
A serious reform was the reorganization of the highest and central bodies state power. Ministries were established in the country: military and ground forces, finance and public education, the State Treasury and the Committee of Ministers, which received a unified structure and were built on the principle of unity of command. Since 1810, in accordance with the project of a prominent statesman those years of M.M. Speransky, the State Council began to operate. However, Speransky could not implement a consistent principle of separation of powers. The State Council turned from an intermediate body into a legislative chamber appointed from above. The reforms of the early 19th century never affected the foundations of autocratic power in the Russian Empire.
During the reign of Alexander I, the Kingdom of Poland annexed to Russia was granted a constitution. The Constitutional Act was also granted to the Bessarabia region. Finland, which also became part of Russia, received its own legislative body - the Diet - and a constitutional structure.
Thus, constitutional government already existed in part of the territory of the Russian Empire, which raised hopes for its spread throughout the country. In 1818, the development of the “Charter of the Russian Empire” even began, but this document never saw the light of day.
In 1822, the emperor lost interest in state affairs, work on reforms was curtailed, and among the advisers of Alexander I, the figure of a new temporary worker stood out - A.A. Arakcheev, who became the first person in the state after the emperor and ruled as an all-powerful favorite. Consequences reform activities Alexander I and his advisers turned out to be insignificant. The unexpected death of the emperor in 1825 at the age of 48 became the reason for open action on the part of the most advanced part of Russian society, the so-called. Decembrists, against the foundations of autocracy.

Patriotic War of 1812

During the reign of Alexander I there was a terrible test for all of Russia - the war of liberation against Napoleonic aggression. The war was caused by the desire of the French bourgeoisie for world domination, a sharp aggravation of Russian-French economic and political contradictions in connection with the wars of conquest of Napoleon I, and Russia’s refusal to participate in the continental blockade of Great Britain. The agreement between Russia and Napoleonic France, concluded in the city of Tilsit in 1807, was temporary. This was understood both in St. Petersburg and in Paris, although many dignitaries of the two countries advocated maintaining peace. However, contradictions between states continued to accumulate, leading to open conflict.
On June 12 (24), 1812, about 500 thousand Napoleonic soldiers crossed the Neman River and
invaded Russia. Napoleon rejected Alexander I's proposal for a peaceful solution to the conflict if he would withdraw his troops. Thus began the Patriotic War, so called because not only the regular army fought against the French, but also almost the entire population of the country in the militia and partisan detachments.
The Russian army consisted of 220 thousand people, and it was divided into three parts. The first army - under the command of General M.B. Barclay de Tolly - was located on the territory of Lithuania, the second - under General Prince P.I. Bagration - in Belarus, and the third army - under General A.P. Tormasov - in Ukraine. Napoleon's plan was extremely simple and consisted in defeating the Russian armies piece by piece with powerful blows.
The Russian armies retreated to the east in parallel directions, conserving strength and exhausting the enemy in rearguard battles. On August 2 (14), the armies of Barclay de Tolly and Bagration united in the Smolensk area. Here, in a difficult two-day battle, the French troops lost 20 thousand soldiers and officers, the Russians - up to 6 thousand people.
The war was clearly taking on a protracted nature, the Russian army continued its retreat, leading the enemy with it into the interior of the country. At the end of August 1812, M.I. Kutuzov, a student and colleague of A.V. Suvorov, was appointed commander-in-chief instead of Minister of War M.B. Barclay de Tolly. Alexander I, who did not like him, was forced to take into account the patriotic sentiments of the Russian people and army, general dissatisfaction with the retreat tactics chosen by Barclay de Tolly. Kutuzov decided to give a general battle to the French army in the area of ​​the village of Borodino, 124 km west of Moscow.
On August 26 (September 7) the battle began. The Russian army was faced with the task of exhausting the enemy, undermining its combat power and morale, and, if successful, launching a counteroffensive themselves. Kutuzov chose a very successful position for the Russian troops. The right flank was protected by a natural barrier - the Koloch River, and the left - by artificial earthen fortifications - flushes occupied by Bagration's troops. The troops of General N.N. Raevsky, as well as artillery positions, were located in the center. Napoleon's plan envisaged breaking through the defenses of Russian troops in the area of ​​Bagrationov's flushes and encircling Kutuzov's army, and when it was pressed against the river, its complete defeat.
The French launched eight attacks against the flushes, but were unable to completely capture them. They managed to make only slight progress in the center, destroying Raevsky's batteries. In the midst of the battle in the central direction, the Russian cavalry made a daring raid behind enemy lines, which sowed panic in the ranks of the attackers.
Napoleon did not dare to bring into action his main reserve - the old guard - in order to turn the tide of the battle. The Battle of Borodino ended late in the evening, and the troops retreated to previously occupied positions. Thus, the battle was a political and moral victory for the Russian army.
On September 1 (13) in Fili, at a meeting of the command staff, Kutuzov decided to leave Moscow in order to preserve the army. Napoleon's troops entered Moscow and stayed there until October 1812. Meanwhile, Kutuzov carried out his plan called the “Tarutino Maneuver”, thanks to which Napoleon lost the ability to track the locations of the Russians. In the village of Tarutino, Kutuzov’s army was replenished by 120 thousand people and significantly strengthened its artillery and cavalry. In addition, it actually closed the French troops’ path to Tula, where the main weapons arsenals and food warehouses were located.
During their stay in Moscow, the French army was demoralized by hunger, looting, and fires that engulfed the city. In the hope of replenishing his arsenals and food supplies, Napoleon was forced to withdraw his army from Moscow. On the way to Maloyaroslavets on October 12 (24), Napoleon's army suffered a serious defeat and began a retreat from Russia along the Smolensk road, already ruined by the French themselves.
On final stage The war tactics of the Russian army consisted of parallel pursuit of the enemy. Russian troops, no
entering the battle with Napoleon, they destroyed his retreating army piece by piece. The French also suffered seriously from the winter frosts, for which they were not prepared, since Napoleon expected to end the war before the cold weather. The culmination of the war of 1812 was the battle of the Berezina River, which ended in the defeat of Napoleonic army.
On December 25, 1812, in St. Petersburg, Emperor Alexander I published a manifesto, which stated that the Patriotic War of the Russian people against the French invaders ended in complete victory and the expulsion of the enemy.
The Russian army took part in the foreign campaigns of 1813-1814, during which, together with the Prussian, Swedish, English and Austrian armies, they finished off the enemy in Germany and France. The campaign of 1813 ended with the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig. After the capture of Paris by Allied forces in the spring of 1814, Napoleon I abdicated the throne.

Decembrist movement

The first quarter of the 19th century in the history of Russia became the period of formation of the revolutionary movement and its ideology. After the foreign campaigns of the Russian army, advanced ideas began to penetrate into Russian Empire. The first secret revolutionary organizations of nobles appeared. Most of them were military officers - guard officers.
The first secret political society was founded in 1816 in St. Petersburg under the name "Union of Salvation", renamed next year in the "Society of True and Faithful Sons of the Fatherland." Its members were the future Decembrists A.I. Muravyov, M.I. Muravyov-Apostol, P.I. Pestel, S.P. Trubetskoy and others. The goal they set for themselves was a constitution, representation, the liquidation of serfdom rights. However, this society was still small in number and could not realize the tasks that it set for itself.
In 1818, on the basis of this self-liquidated society, a new one was created - the “Union of Welfare”. It was already a larger secret organization, numbering more than 200 people. Its organizers were F.N. Glinka, F.P. Tolstoy, M.I. Muravyov-Apostol. The organization had a ramified character: its cells were created in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Nizhny Novgorod, Tambov, in the south of the country. The goals of society remained the same - the introduction of representative government, the elimination of autocracy and serfdom. Members of the Union saw ways to achieve their goal in promoting their views and proposals sent to the government. However, they never heard a response.
All this prompted radical members of society to create two new secret organizations, established in March 1825. One was founded in St. Petersburg and was called the “Northern Society.” Its creators were N.M. Muravyov and N.I. Turgenev. Another one arose in Ukraine. This “Southern Society” was led by P.I. Pestel. Both societies were interconnected and were actually a single organization. Each society had its own program document, the Northern one - the “Constitution” by N.M. Muravyov, and the Southern one - “Russian Truth”, written by P.I. Pestel.
These documents expressed a single goal - the destruction of autocracy and serfdom. However, the “Constitution” expressed the liberal nature of the reforms - with a constitutional monarchy, restrictions on voting rights and the preservation of landownership, while “Russkaya Pravda” was radical, republican. It proclaimed a presidential republic, the confiscation of landowners' lands and a combination of private and social forms property.
The conspirators planned to carry out their coup in the summer of 1826 during army exercises. But unexpectedly, on November 19, 1825, Alexander I died, and this event pushed the conspirators to take active action ahead of schedule.
After the death of Alexander I, his brother Konstantin Pavlovich was supposed to become the Russian emperor, but during the life of Alexander I, he abdicated the throne in favor of his younger brother Nicholas. This was not officially announced, so initially both the state apparatus and the army swore allegiance to Constantine. But soon Constantine’s renunciation of the throne was made public and a re-oath was ordered. That's why
members of the “Northern Society” decided to speak out on December 14, 1825 with the demands laid down in their program, for which they planned to hold a demonstration military force at the Senate building. An important task was to prevent senators from taking the oath of office to Nikolai Pavlovich. Prince S.P. Trubetskoy was proclaimed the leader of the uprising.
On December 14, 1825, the Moscow Regiment, led by members of the “Northern Society” brothers Bestuzhev and Shchepin-Rostovsky, was the first to arrive on Senate Square. However, the regiment stood alone for a long time, the conspirators were inactive. The murder of Governor-General of St. Petersburg M.A. Miloradovich, who went to join the rebels, became fatal - the uprising could no longer end peacefully. By mid-day, the rebels were still joined by a guards naval crew and a company of the Life Grenadier Regiment.
The leaders continued to hesitate to take active action. In addition, it turned out that the senators had already sworn allegiance to Nicholas I and left the Senate. Therefore, there was no one to present the “Manifesto” to, and Prince Trubetskoy never appeared on the square. Meanwhile, troops loyal to the government began shelling the rebels. The uprising was suppressed and arrests began. Members " Southern Society“They tried to carry out an uprising in early January 1826 (the uprising of the Chernigov regiment), but it was also brutally suppressed by the authorities. Five leaders of the uprising - P.I. Pestel, K.F. Ryleev, S.I. Muravyov-Apostol, M.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin and P.G. Kakhovsky - were executed, the rest of its participants were exiled to hard labor in Siberia.
The Decembrist uprising was the first open protest in Russia, which aimed at radically reorganizing society.

Alexander I became Russian Emperor as a result of a palace coup and regicide on March 11, 1801.

In the first years of his reign, he believed that the country needed fundamental reforms and serious renewal. To carry out reforms, he created a Secret Committee to discuss reform projects. The secret committee put forward the idea of ​​​​limiting autocracy, but first it was decided to carry out reforms in the field of management. Reform began in 1802 higher authorities state power, ministries were created, the Committee of Ministers was established. In 1803, a decree on “free cultivators” was issued, according to which landowners could free their serfs with land plots for a ransom. After an appeal from the Baltic landowners, he approved the law on the complete abolition of serfdom in Estland (1811).

In 1809, the emperor’s secretary of state, M. Speransky, presented the tsar with a draft radical reform public administration- a project to create a constitutional monarchy in Russia. Having met active resistance from the nobles, Alexander I abandoned the project.

In 1816-1822. In Russia, noble secret societies arose - the “Union of Salvation”. Welfare Union Southern Society, Northern Society - with the aim of introducing a republican constitution or a constitutional monarchy in Russia. Towards the end of his reign, Alexander I, experiencing pressure from the nobles and fearing popular uprisings, abandoned all liberal ideas and serious reforms.

In 1812, Russia experienced an invasion by Napoleon's army, the defeat of which ended with the entry of Russian troops into Paris. In foreign policy Russia has undergone dramatic changes. Unlike Paul I, who supported Napoleon, Alexander, on the contrary, opposed France, and resumed trade and political relations with England.

In 1801, Russia and England concluded an anti-French convention “On Mutual Friendship”, and then, in 1804, Russia joined the third anti-French coalition. After the defeat at Austerlitz in 1805, the coalition fell apart. In 1807, the forced Peace of Tilsit was signed with Napoleon. Subsequently, Russia and its allies inflicted a decisive defeat on Napoleon’s army in the “Battle of the Nations” near Leipzig in 1813.

In 1804-1813. Russia won the war with Iran and seriously expanded and strengthened its southern borders. In 1806-1812 was protracted Russian-Turkish war. As a result of the war with Sweden in 1808-1809. Finland was included in Russia, and later Poland (1814).

In 1814 Russia took part in the work Congress of Vienna to resolve issues of the post-war structure of Europe and to create the Holy Alliance to ensure peace in Europe, which included Russia and almost all European countries.

BEGINNING OF THE REIGN OF ALEXANDER I

And yet, the first years of the reign of Alexander I left the best memories among contemporaries, “Alexander’s Days are a wonderful beginning” - this is how A.S. described these years. Pushkin. A short period of enlightened absolutism ensued.” Universities, lyceums, and gymnasiums were opened. Measures were taken to alleviate the situation of the peasants. Alexander stopped distributing state peasants to landowners. In 1803, a decree on “free cultivators” was adopted. According to the decree, the landowner could free his peasants by allocating them land and receiving a ransom from them. But the landowners were in no hurry to take advantage of this decree. During the reign of Alexander I, only 47 thousand male souls were freed. But the ideas contained in the decree of 1803 subsequently formed the basis for the reform of 1861.

The Secret Committee proposed a ban on selling serfs without land. Human trafficking was carried out in Russia in open, cynical forms. Advertisements for the sale of serfs were published in newspapers. At the Makaryevskaya fair they were sold along with other goods, families were separated. Sometimes a Russian peasant, bought at a fair, went to distant eastern countries, where until the end of his days he lived as a foreign slave.

Alexander I wanted to stop such shameful phenomena, but the proposal to prohibit the sale of peasants without land encountered stubborn resistance from senior dignitaries. They believed that this undermined serfdom. Without showing persistence, the young emperor retreated. It was only prohibited to publish advertisements for the sale of people.

TO early XIX V. The administrative system of the state was in a state of obvious collapse. The introduced collegial form of central government clearly did not justify itself. A circular irresponsibility reigned in the colleges, covering up bribery and embezzlement. Local authorities, taking advantage of the weakness of central government, committed lawlessness.

At first, Alexander I hoped to restore order and strengthen the state by introducing a ministerial system of central government based on the principle of unity of command. In 1802, instead of the previous 12 boards, 8 ministries were created: military, maritime, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education and justice. This measure strengthened central administration. But no decisive victory was achieved in the fight against abuses. Old vices have taken up residence in the new ministries. As they grew, they rose to the upper levels of state power. Alexander knew of senators who took bribes. The desire to expose them fought in him with the fear of damaging the prestige of the Senate. It became obvious that changes in the bureaucratic machine alone could not solve the problem of creating a system of state power that would actively contribute to the development of the country's productive forces, rather than devouring its resources. A fundamentally new approach to solving the problem was required.

Bokhanov A.N., Gorinov M.M. History of Russia since early XVIII until the end of the 19th century, M., 2001

“RUSSIAN POLITICS DO NOT EXIST”

Russian, Russian politics during the reign of Emperor Alexander I, one might say, does not exist. There is European politics (a hundred years later they would say “pan-European”), there is the politics of the universe - the politics of the Holy Alliance. And there is the “Russian policy” of foreign cabinets that use Russia and its Tsar for their own selfish purposes through the skillful work of trusted persons who have unlimited influence on the Tsar (such as, for example, Pozzo di Borgo and Michaud de Boretour - two amazing adjutant generals who ruled Russian politics , but during their long tenure as adjutant general they did not learn a single Russian word).

Four phases can be observed here:

The first is the era of predominantly English influence. This is “the wonderful beginning of the Alexandrov days.” The young Sovereign is not averse to dreaming among intimate friends about “projects for the Russian constitution.” England is the ideal and patron of all liberalism, including Russian. At the head of the English government, Pitt Jr. is the great son of a great father, the mortal enemy of France in general and Bonaparte in particular. They are allowed great idea liberation of Europe from the tyranny of Napoleon ( financial side England takes over). The result is a war with France, a second French war... True, little English blood has been shed, but Russian blood flows like a river at Austerlitz and Pultusk, Eylau and Friedland.

Friedland is followed by Tilsit, who opens the second era - the era of French influence. The genius of Napoleon makes a deep impression on Alexander... The Tilsit banquet, the St. George crosses on the chests of the French grenadiers... The Erfurt meeting - the Emperor of the West, the Emperor of the East... Russia has a free hand on the Danube, where it is waging war with Turkey, but Napoleon gets freedom of action in Spain. Russia recklessly joins the continental system without considering all the consequences of this step.

Napoleon left for Spain. In the meantime, in the brilliant Prussian head of Stein, a plan had matured for the liberation of Germany from the yoke of Napoleon - a plan based on Russian blood... From Berlin to St. Petersburg is closer than from Madrid to St. Petersburg. Prussian influence begins to supplant French. Stein and Pfuel handled the matter skillfully, deftly presenting to the Russian Emperor all the greatness of the feat of “saving the kings and their peoples.” At the same time, their accomplices set Napoleon against Russia, in every possible way insinuating Russia’s non-compliance with the Continental Treaty, touching on Napoleon’s sore spot, his hatred of his main enemy - England. Relations between the Erfurt allies completely deteriorated and a trifling reason (skilfully inflated by the efforts of German well-wishers) was enough to involve Napoleon and Alexander in a brutal three-year war that bled and ruined their countries - but turned out to be extremely profitable (as the instigators had hoped) for Germany in general and for Prussia in particular.

Using to the end weaknesses Alexander I - passion for pose and mysticism - foreign cabinets, through subtle flattery, made him believe in their messianism and, through their trusted people, instilled in him the idea of ​​​​the Holy Alliance, which then turned in their skillful hands into the Holy Alliance of Europe against Russia. Contemporary to those sad events, the engraving depicts “the oath of the three monarchs on the tomb of Frederick the Great in eternal friendship.” An oath for which four Russian generations paid a terrible price. At the Congress of Vienna, Galicia, which she had recently received, was taken away from Russia, and in exchange the Duchy of Warsaw was given, which prudently, to the greater glory of Germanism, introduced a Polish element hostile to it into Russia. In this fourth period, Russian policy is directed at the behest of Metternich.

WAR OF 1812 AND THE FOREIGN CAMPAIGN OF THE RUSSIAN ARMY

Out of 650 thousand soldiers " Great Army“Napoleon returned to his homeland, according to some sources, 30 thousand, according to others - 40 thousand soldiers. Essentially, Napoleonic’s army was not expelled, but exterminated in the vast snow-covered expanses of Russia. On December 21, he reported to Alexander: “The war is over with the complete extermination of the enemy.” On December 25, a royal manifesto was issued to coincide with the Nativity of Christ, announcing the end of the war. Russia turned out to be the only country in Europe capable of not only resisting Napoleonic aggression, but also inflicting a crushing blow on it. The secret of the victory was that it was a national liberation, truly Patriotic, war. But this victory came at a high cost to the people. Twelve provinces, which became the scene of hostilities, were devastated. The ancient Russian cities of Smolensk, Polotsk, Vitebsk, and Moscow were burned and destroyed. Direct military losses amounted to over 300 thousand soldiers and officers. There were even greater losses among the civilian population.

Victory in Patriotic War The year 1812 had a huge impact on all aspects of the social, political and cultural life of the country, contributed to the growth of national self-awareness, and gave a powerful impetus to the development of advanced social thought in Russia.

But the victorious end of the Patriotic War of 1812 did not yet mean that Russia managed to put an end to Napoleon’s aggressive plans. He himself openly announced the preparation of a new campaign against Russia, feverishly putting together a new army for the campaign of 1813.

Alexander I decided to forestall Napoleon and immediately transfer military operations outside the country. In pursuance of his will, Kutuzov wrote in an army order dated December 21, 1812: “Without stopping among heroic deeds, we move on now. Let’s cross the borders and strive to complete the defeat of the enemy on his own fields.” Both Alexander and Kutuzov rightly counted on help from the peoples conquered by Napoleon, and their calculation was justified.

On January 1, 1813, a hundred thousand Russian army under the command of Kutuzov crossed the Neman and entered Poland. On February 16, in Kalisz, where the headquarters of Alexander I was located, an offensive and defensive alliance was concluded between Russia and Prussia. Prussia also took upon itself the obligation to supply the Russian army with food on its territory.

At the beginning of March, Russian troops occupied Berlin. By this time, Napoleon had formed an army of 300 thousand, of which 160 thousand soldiers moved against the allied forces. A heavy loss for Russia was the death of Kutuzov on April 16, 1813 in the Silesian city of Bunzlau. Alexander I appointed P.Kh. as commander-in-chief of the Russian army. Wittgenstein. His attempts to pursue his own strategy, different from Kutuzov’s, led to a number of failures. Napoleon, having inflicted defeats on the Russian-Prussian troops at Lutzen and Bautzen at the end of April - beginning of May, threw them back to the Oder. Alexander I replaced Wittgenstein as commander-in-chief of the Allied forces with Barclay de Tolly.

In July - August 1813, England, Sweden and Austria joined the anti-Napoleonic coalition. The coalition had up to half a million soldiers at its disposal, divided into three armies. The Austrian field marshal Karl Schwarzenberg was appointed commander-in-chief of all armies, and the general leadership of military operations against Napoleon was carried out by the council of three monarchs - Alexander I, Franz I and Friedrich Wilhelm III.

By the beginning of August 1813, Napoleon already had 440 thousand soldiers, and on August 15 he defeated the coalition troops near Dresden. Only the victory of Russian troops three days after the Battle of Dresden over the corps of Napoleonic General D. Vandam near Kulm prevented the collapse of the coalition.

The decisive battle during the 1813 campaign took place near Leipzig on October 4-7. It was a "battle of the nations." More than half a million people took part in it on both sides. The battle ended in victory for the allied Russian-Prussian-Austrian troops.

After the Battle of Leipzig, the Allies slowly advanced towards the French border. In two and a half months, almost the entire territory of the German states was liberated from French troops, with the exception of some fortresses, in which the French garrisons stubbornly defended themselves until the very end of the war.

On January 1, 1814, the Allied troops crossed the Rhine and entered French territory. By this time, Denmark had joined the anti-Napoleonic coalition. The allied troops were constantly replenished with reserves, and by the beginning of 1814 they already numbered up to 900 thousand soldiers. Over the two winter months of 1814, Napoleon won 12 battles against them and drew two. There was again hesitation in the coalition camp. The Allies offered Napoleon peace on the terms of the return of France to the borders of 1792. Napoleon refused. Alexander I insisted on continuing the war, striving to overthrow Napoleon from the throne. At the same time, Alexander I did not want the restoration of the Bourbons to the French throne: he proposed leaving Napoleon’s young son on the throne under the regency of his mother Marie-Louise. On March 10, Russia, Austria, Prussia and England concluded the Treaty of Chaumont, according to which they pledged not to enter into separate negotiations with Napoleon on peace or an armistice. The threefold superiority of the Allies in the number of troops by the end of March 1814 led to a victorious end to the campaign. Having won the battles of Laon and Arcy-sur-Aube in early March, a 100,000-strong group of allied troops moved towards Paris, defended by a 45,000-strong garrison. On March 19, 1814, Paris capitulated. Napoleon rushed to liberate the capital, but his marshals refused to fight and forced him to sign an abdication on March 25. According to the peace treaty signed on May 18 (30), 1814 in Paris, France returned to the borders of 1792. Napoleon and his dynasty were deprived of the French throne, on which the Bourbons were restored. Louis XVIII became the King of France, having returned from Russia, where he had been in exile.

FUN AND ENTERTAINMENT OF THE ALEXANDER ERA

The dynasty's holidays were national days of rest and festivities, and every year all of St. Petersburg, overwhelmed with festive excitement, waited for July 22. A few days before the celebrations, thousands of people rushed from the city along the Peterhof road: nobles in luxurious carriages, nobles, townspeople, commoners - whoever had what. A journal from the 1820s tells us:

“Several people are crowded on the droshky and willingly endure the shaking and anxiety; there, in a Chukhon wagon, there is a whole family with large supplies of provisions of all kinds, and they all patiently swallow the thick dust... Moreover, on both sides of the road there are many pedestrians, whose hunting and the strength of their legs overpower the lightness of their wallet; peddlers of various fruits and berries - and they rush to Peterhof in the hope of profit and vodka. ...The pier also presents a lively picture, here thousands of people are crowded and rush to get on the ship.”

Petersburgers spent several days in Peterhof - the parks were open to everyone. Tens of thousands of people spent the night right on the streets. The warm, short, bright night did not seem tiresome to anyone. The nobles slept in their carriages, the townspeople and peasants in the carts, hundreds of carriages formed real bivouacs. Everywhere one could see chewing horses and people sleeping in the most picturesque positions. These were peaceful hordes, everything was unusually quiet and orderly, without the usual drunkenness and massacres. After the end of the holiday, the guests just as peacefully left for St. Petersburg, life returned to its usual rut until next summer...

In the evening, after dinner and dancing in Grand Palace The masquerade began in the Lower Park, where everyone was allowed. By this time, Peterhof parks were being transformed: alleys, fountains, cascades, as in the 18th century, were decorated with thousands of lit bowls and multi-colored lamps. Bands played everywhere, crowds of guests in fancy dress walked along the alleys of the park, making way for cavalcades of elegant horsemen and carriages of members of the royal family.

With the accession of Alexander, Petersburg celebrated its first century with particular joy. In May 1803, there were continuous celebrations in the capital. On the city's birthday, spectators saw how a countless number of festively dressed people filled all the alleys of the Summer Garden... on Tsaritsyno Meadow there were booths, swings and other devices for all kinds of folk games. In the evening Summer garden, the main buildings on the embankment, the fortress and the small Dutch house of Peter the Great... were magnificently illuminated. On the Neva, a flotilla of small ships of the imperial squadron, decorated with flags, was also brightly lit, and on the deck of one of these ships was visible... the so-called “Grandfather of the Russian Fleet” - the boat from which the Russian fleet began...

Anisimov E.V. Imperial Russia. St. Petersburg, 2008

LEGENDS AND RUMORS ABOUT THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER I

What happened there in the south is shrouded in mystery. It is officially known that Alexander I died on November 19, 1825 in Taganrog. The sovereign's body was hastily embalmed and taken to St. Petersburg. […] And from about 1836, already under Nicholas I, rumors spread throughout the country that among the people there lived a certain wise old man, Fyodor Kuzmich Kuzmin, righteous, educated and very, very similar to the late emperor, although at the same time he did not at all pretend to be an impostor . He walked around the holy places of Rus' for a long time, and then settled in Siberia, where he died in 1864. The fact that the elder was not a commoner was clear to everyone who saw him.

But then a furious and insoluble dispute flared up: who is he? Some say that this is the once brilliant cavalry guard Fyodor Uvarov, who mysteriously disappeared from his estate. Others believe that it was Emperor Alexander himself. Of course, among the latter there are many crazy people and graphomaniacs, but there are also serious people. They pay attention to many strange facts. The cause of death of the 47-year-old emperor, in general a healthy, active person, is not fully understood. There is some strange confusion in the documents about the death of the tsar, and this led to the suspicion that the papers were drawn up retroactively. When the body was delivered to the capital, when the coffin was opened, everyone was amazed by the cry of the mother of the deceased, Empress Maria Feodorovna, at the sight of Alexander’s dark, “like a Moor” face: “This is not my son!” They talked about some kind of mistake during embalming. Or maybe, as supporters of the tsar’s departure claim, this mistake was not accidental? Just shortly before November 19, the courier crashed before the eyes of the sovereign - the carriage was carried by horses. They put him in the coffin, and Alexander himself...

[…] In recent months, Alexander I has changed a lot. It seemed that he was possessed by some important thought, which made him thoughtful and decisive at the same time. […] Finally, relatives recalled how Alexander often talked about how he was tired and dreamed of leaving the throne. The wife of Nicholas I, Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, wrote in her diary a week before their coronation on August 15, 1826:

“Probably, when I see the people, I will think about how the late Emperor Alexander, telling us once about his abdication, added: “How I will rejoice when I see you passing by me, and in the crowd I will shout to you “Hurray!” ", waving his hat."

Opponents object to this: is it a known thing to give up such power? And all these conversations of Alexander are just his usual pose, affectation. And in general, why did the king need to go to the people that he did not like so much? Weren't there other ways to live without a throne - let's remember the Swedish Queen Christina, who left the throne and went to enjoy life in Italy. Or you could settle in Crimea and build a palace. Yes, it was possible to go to the monastery, finally. […] Meanwhile, from one shrine to another, pilgrims wandered across Russia with staffs and knapsacks. Alexander saw them many times during his trips around the country. These were not vagabonds, but people filled with faith and love for their neighbors, eternal enchanted wanderers of Rus'. Their continuous movement along an endless road, their faith, visible in their eyes and not requiring proof, could suggest a way out to a tired sovereign...

In a word, there is no clarity in this story. The best expert on the time of Alexander I, historian N.K. Schilder, the author of a fundamental work about him, a brilliant expert on documents and an honest person, said:

“The whole dispute is only possible because some certainly want Alexander I and Fyodor Kuzmich to be one and the same person, while others absolutely do not want this. Meanwhile, there is no definite data to resolve this issue in one direction or another. I can give as much evidence in favor of the first opinion as in favor of the second, and no definite conclusion can be drawn.” […]

Alexander Pavlovich Romanov was born in St. Petersburg on December 12, 1777. His father was Emperor Paul I, his mother was Maria Feodorovna. He was raised by his grandmother Catherine II. From an early age, the future heir to the throne was trained in military affairs. Teaching other sciences was imbued with the ideas of enlightenment and humanism. In 1795, Alexander married a German princess.

After baptism, they began to call her Elizaveta Alekseevna. With the death of Catherine II, the father becomes emperor. Alexander is the heir to the throne. He is appointed to sit in the Senate. In March 1801, a coup d'état took place in St. Petersburg. Paul I was killed. Alexander I becomes emperor. In historiography he is called the Blessed One. First of all, Alexander I is engaged in the internal transformation of the state. He declares an amnesty for freethinkers and people who suffered during his father's reign. In 1803, a decree on free cultivators was signed.

Landowners are given the right to free peasants with land allotments. In the Baltics, serfdom was completely abolished. The reforms also affected education. The Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum opens. Administrative reforms are being carried out, an Permanent Council and eight ministries are being created. The emperor's assistant and friend Mikhail Speransky is entrusted with the development of new reforms aimed at forming a constitutional monarchy in the state. But in 1812, these reforms were considered anti-state, and Speransky was dismissed.

The victory in the Patriotic War with France and Napoleon significantly increased the authority of Alexander I. During this period, a police regime was introduced and military settlements were formed. In 1817, the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education was formed. After 5 years, secret societies are prohibited. In 1825, Emperor Alexander I died in Taganrog after a serious illness. He had no children left. The throne was inherited by his younger brother Nicholas.

Alexander I short biography

Alexander 1 Pavlovich was born in royal family. Immediately in his childhood, he was transferred to his grandmother for upbringing, Catherine 2. Catherine 2 hired famous teachers from Europe for her grandson, in the hope of raising a brave and intelligent king.

Alexander 1 constantly criticized his father's reign. He was preparing a conspiracy against his father, but the conspiracy was on the conditions that his father would not suffer, but would simply give him his throne. However, if this did not happen, Tsar Paul 1 died because of the conspiracy, after which, until the end of his life, Alexander 1 regretted what he had done and blamed only his father.

In 1801, Alexander 1 came to the throne. He is called historically the greatest reformer in Russian history. The first thing he did was create chambers under which these chambers could change or prohibit laws passed by the king. However, these chambers did not agree on one opinion, there were many disagreements, and it did not work in the Russian Empire.

His reforms affected the entire society; under him, Land Laws were drawn up, under which everyone could buy a plot. Under Alexander 1, a cabinet of ministers was created. In 1803, he made reforms in the educational system, so in 3 years 6 universities appeared on the territory of the Russian Empire.

At the beginning of the 19th century there were constant wars and conflicts. In particular, Napoleonic France planned to seize European lands. Then, a coalition of European countries was created, and Alexander 1 was at the head of this coalition.
In 1810, state reforms were created, behind which was Mikhail Speransky, close to Alexander 1. His laws led to the creation of absolute monarchy into a constitutional monarchy. A parliament was created in which bills were decided.

Alexander is the first to take a series of victories over Sweden, Turkey and Napoleonic France. Signs a number of agreements with European countries about the union. During the reign of Alexander I, Georgia, Finland, Bessarabia, Azerbaijan, and the former Duchy of Warsaw (1815) were annexed to Russia.

In 1825, Alexander 1 dies. However, more than once he mentioned that he would like to take a break from governing. Many historians believe that Alexander 1’s double died, and the tsar moved to Siberia, where he died only in 1864.

Interesting facts and dates from life

(son of Paul I). Liberal reforms gave way to “Arakcheevism.”
Immediately after his birth, Alexander was taken from his parents by his grandmother, Empress Catherine II, who intended to raise him as an ideal sovereign, a successor to her work.

On the recommendation of D. Diderot, the Swiss F. C. Laharpe, a republican by conviction, was invited to be Alexander's teacher. The Grand Duke grew up with a romantic belief in the ideals of the Enlightenment, sympathized with the Poles who lost their statehood after the partitions of Poland, sympathized with the Great French Revolution and critically assessed political system Russian autocracy. Catherine II forced him to read the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen and herself explained its meaning to him.

However, in recent years During his grandmother's reign, Alexander found more and more inconsistencies between her declared ideals and everyday political practice. He had to carefully hide his feelings, which contributed to the formation in him of such traits as pretense and slyness. This was also reflected in the relationship with his father during a visit to his residence in Gatchina, where the spirit of military spirit and strict discipline reigned. Alexander constantly had to have, as it were, two masks: one for his grandmother, the other for his father. IN 1793 he was married to Princess Louise of Baden (in Orthodoxy Elizaveta Alekseevna), who enjoyed the sympathy of Russian society, but was not loved by her husband.

It is believed that shortly before her death, Catherine II intended to bequeath the throne to Alexander, bypassing her son. Apparently, the grandson was aware of her plans, but did not agree to accept the throne. After Paul's accession, Alexander's position became even more complicated, for he had to constantly prove his loyalty to the suspicious emperor.

Alexander’s attitude towards his father’s policies was sharply critical. It was these sentiments of Alexander that contributed to his involvement in the conspiracy against Paul, but on the conditions that the conspirators would spare his father’s life and would only seek his abdication. Tragic events March 11, 1801 seriously affected Alexander’s state of mind: he felt a sense of guilt for the death of his father until the end of his days.

Representatives of all classes pinned their hopes on the new tsar: the peasants hoped for a weakening of landlord oppression; the nobles, finally freed from the power of Paul I, were waiting for attention to their interests. Their main interest was the preservation and strengthening of the autocratic-serf system, maintaining the dictatorship of the nobility. Thus, Alexander I needed to pursue a policy aimed at smoothing out the contradictions that had developed in Russian society and the economy by the beginning of the 19th century.

Alexander I ascended the Russian throne intending to carry out a radical reform of the political system of Russia by creating a constitution that guaranteed personal freedom and civil rights to all subjects. He was aware that this would actually lead to the elimination of the autocracy, and if successful, he was ready to retire from power. However, he also understood that he needed a certain social support, like-minded people. He needed to get rid of pressure both from the conspirators who overthrew Paul and from the “Catherine’s old men” who supported them. Already in the first days after his accession, Alexander announced that he would rule Russia “according to the laws and heart” of Catherine II.

1801–1803– activities of the Secret Committee (Alexander I, V.P. Kochubey, N.N. Novosiltsev, A.S. Stroganov, A.Yu. Chartorysky). The emergence of the draft Russian constitution.
1801– annexation of Eastern Georgia (Kartli and Kakheti) to Russia.
1801, December- a decree allowing non-nobles to buy uninhabited lands.
1802- the formation of eight ministries instead of Peter’s administrative boards: internal affairs, foreign affairs, military, naval, justice, commerce, finance, public education.
1803- Decree “On Free Plowmen”, which gave landowners the right to release serfs with land for a ransom.
1803–1806- first Russian trip around the world(I.F. Kruzenshtern). The appearance of the Russian fleet in the Southern Ocean.
1804– introduction of the university charter. Granting universities significant autonomy.
1804- founding by the Cossacks of the 3rd Khoper Regiment of Cherkessk (today the capital of the Karachay-Cherkess Republic).
1804–1813– Russian-Iranian war.
1805–1807– Russia’s participation in the third and fourth anti-French coalitions. Napoleon's conquests in Europe.
1805, November- a crushing defeat of the Russian-Austrian troops at Austerlitz.
1807, June 25- Peace of Tilsit with France. Russia's recognition of all Napoleonic conquests and joining the continental blockade of England.
1808–1809- Russian-Swedish war, annexation of Finland.
1809– plan government reforms M. M. Speransky (“Introduction to the Code of State Laws”).
1809– Friedrichsham Peace with Sweden. Annexation of Finland and the Alan Islands to Russia.
1810– creation of the State Council - the highest legislative body under Emperor Alexander I.
1811– reform of the ministerial system. Abolition of the Ministry of Commerce, creation of the Ministry of Police, Department of Communications and State Control.
1812– exile of M. M. Speransky to Siberia.
1812– Bucharest Peace Treaty with Turkey. Annexation of Bessarabia to Russia.
The invasion of Napoleon's troops into Russia. The invasion of Napoleonic armies into Russia (which he learned about while in Vilna) was perceived by Alexander not only as the greatest threat to Russia, but also as a personal insult, and Napoleon himself henceforth became his mortal personal enemy. Not wanting to repeat the experience of Austerlitz and submitting to pressure from his environment, Alexander left the army and returned to St. Petersburg. During the entire time that Barclay de Tolly carried out a retreat maneuver, which brought upon him the fire of sharp criticism from both society and the army, Alexander showed almost no solidarity with the military leader. After Smolensk was abandoned, the emperor yielded to everyone’s demands and appointed M.I. Kutuzov to this post. With the expulsion of Napoleonic troops from Russia, Alexander returned to the army and was in it during the foreign campaigns of 1813–1814.

The victory over Napoleon strengthened Alexander's authority; he became one of the most powerful rulers of Europe, who felt himself a liberator of its peoples, who was entrusted with a special mission, determined by God's will, to prevent further wars and devastation on the continent. He also considered the tranquility of Europe a necessary condition to implement their reform plans in Russia itself. To ensure these conditions, it was necessary to maintain the status quo determined by the decisions of the Congress of Vienna (1815), according to which the territory of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was transferred to Russia, and the monarchy was restored in France, and Alexander insisted on the establishment of a constitutional-monarchical system in this country, which should have served as a precedent for the establishment of similar regimes in other countries. The Russian emperor, in particular, managed to enlist the support of his allies for his idea of ​​​​introducing a constitution in Poland. As a guarantor of compliance with the decisions of the Congress of Vienna, the emperor initiated the creation of the Holy Alliance (14 September 1815)– prototype international organizations XX century Alexander was convinced that he owed his victory over Napoleon to the providence of God; his religiosity constantly intensified. Strong influence Baroness J. Krüdener and Archimandrite Photius influenced him. According to some reports, his faith acquired an ecumenistic character, and he himself gradually became a mystic.

Alexander was directly involved in the activities of the Holy Alliance congresses in Aachen (September – November 1818), Troppau and Laibach (October – December 1820 – January 1821), Verona (October–December 1822). However, the strengthening Russian influence in Europe caused opposition from the allies. In 1825, the Holy Alliance essentially disintegrated.
1812, August 26- Battle of Borodino. The troops of M.I. Kutuzov defeated the French army.
Early in the morning August 26 (September 7) The Battle of Borodino began, which lasted 12 hours. The main blow of Napoleon's troops was directed at the left flank - Bagration's flushes. The French troops in this direction were commanded by the most experienced generals, the pride of Napoleon: Ney, Davout, Murat, Oudinot. The losses on both sides were enormous. The adjutants reported to Napoleon that there were no prisoners - the Russians did not surrender. Napoleon threw more and more forces into battle. Only from the eighth attack did the French manage to capture our flushes. Gathering the remnants of his forces, Bagration (Russian general) led them in a counterattack, but was mortally wounded.

Napoleon was triumphant: the capture of Bagration's flushes opened a direct road to Raevsky's battery. A 35,000-strong army and about 200 guns were ready to attack, but an unexpected raid by the cavalry regiments of F.P. Uvarov and the Cossacks of M.I. Platov, their attack on the left flank and rear of the French army thwarted the French plans.
The French plans did not come true - the front of the Russian army held out, it was not possible to encircle it and destroy it. The French retreated to their original positions, and the Russian army remained in its place by the end of the battle. After the battle, historians said that Napoleon could have won by bringing his last reserve into the battle - the old, proven guard. But he did not dare to do this several thousand kilometers from Paris. The French losses were already enormous - over 58 thousand people, only 49 generals were killed and wounded.

Russian troops lost 43 thousand people, including more than 20 generals. The Battle of Borodino was the last in the life of Pyotr Ivanovich Bagration.
1813–1814- foreign campaigns of the Russian army under the command of M.I. Kutuzov. Liberation of Europe from French domination. The transition of Napoleon's allies to the side of Russia. 1815–1825– this period of time came to be known in Russia as “Arakcheevshchina”. For many Russian tsars, the transfer of power functions into the hands of favorites and temporary workers was a common occurrence. Alexander I was no exception, transferring control of the state to Alexey Andreevich Arakcheev. The sovereign himself devoted himself entirely to the concerns of the Holy Alliance, the purpose of which was to fight the revolutionary movement in Europe. In Russia, Alexander I also switched to reactionary politics from 1815. Wars, especially with the French, caused enormous damage to the country. Entire provinces were destroyed. The landowners restored their farms mainly by tightening the exploitation of the peasants. There was a growing murmur of indignation among the people. Fearing uprisings, the tsar once again resorted to playing at liberalism. He promised, following the example of Poland, to introduce a constitution in Russia and even instructed Arakcheev to draw up a plan for the liberation of the peasants. However, all projects remained on paper, and in Russia with 1820 and until the end of the reign of Alexander I, there was a harsh reaction carried out by the hands of Arakcheev. The main manifestation of the reactionary regime was the reprisal against the dissatisfied. To suppress numerous peasant uprisings abandoned regular troops. The instigators were subjected cruel punishments, exiled to Siberia.
Considering the popular movement of the first quarter of the 19th century, one can understand what forces contributed to the emergence of the revolutionary movement of the Decembrists, under the influence of what events their views were formed. Despite the fact that all of them did not come from the people, they sympathized with their plight and stood for the abolition of serfdom.
The Decembrist movement emerged already in 1814 when, one after another, associations called pre-Decembrist began to take shape: “Order of Russian Knights”, “Sacred Artel”, “Semyonovskaya Artel”. They did not yet have either a program or a charter. They were united only by dissatisfaction with the existing order, which they dreamed of changing. February 9, 1816 A secret organization, the Union of Salvation, was established, the goal of which was to abolish serfdom and replace autocracy with a constitutional monarchy. Due to disagreements, the "Union of Salvation" disintegrated, but instead 1818 The Union of Welfare was created. Its participants decided to fight for the republic, choosing the tactics of a military revolution, that is, a revolution carried out without the participation of the people, using military forces alone. WITH 1821 In Russia, secret revolutionary societies began to be created one after another.
One of these societies was the “Southern Society,” led by P. I. Pestel. IN 1822 At the congress of the “Southern Society” in Kyiv, he presented his draft constitution “Russian Truth”, which was soon adopted by the society as a program. At the same time, the “Northern Society” was operating in St. Petersburg, headed by K. F. Ryleev, the brothers Bestuzhev and Batenkov. After long negotiations, both societies agreed on a date for the performance - the summer of 1826, but due to the sudden death of Alexander I, the uprising was postponed to December 14, 1825
1825, December 14- Decembrist uprising on Senate Square in St. Petersburg.
After the death of Alexander I, an interregnum arose. There were two contenders for the throne: Constantine and Nicholas. Constantine renounced the throne, despite the fact that they had already sworn allegiance to him as king. Therefore, the re-oath to Nicholas was set for December 14th. The Decembrists decided to take advantage of the situation and on December 14 at 11 a.m. rebel troops gathered on Senate Square. According to the plan, three detachments of Decembrists were supposed to capture the Winter Palace and arrest the new tsar, then take possession of the Peter and Paul Fortress and force the senators to recognize the coup. But events unfolded differently. In the morning, the senators swore allegiance to Nicholas and went home, but the Decembrist troops did not dare to take decisive action. Artillery salvoes on the rebels put an end to the confrontation. After this, arrests of Decembrists began both in St. Petersburg and in the south of the country. The investigation into their case took place with the direct participation of Nicholas I, and he also passed the verdict. The trial was of a demonstrative nature. Pestel, Muravyov, Ryleev, Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Kakhovsky were sentenced to quartering, but Nicholas I commuted the sentence to execution by hanging. Others arrested were sentenced to exile.
The Decembrist uprising was the first political uprising against tsarism with arms in hand. His experience and mistakes were used by revolutionaries many years later, so his significance in the history of Russia is very great.

Sergei Sergeevich Ivanov
Natalia Olegovna Trifonova
History of Russia of the 9th–21st centuries in dates